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Division  DS57 
Section  3.  1,7. 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/details/studiesinorienta00trum_0 


BOOKS  BY  H.  CLAY  TRUMBULL. 


STUDIES  IN  ORIENTAL  SOCIAL  LIFE  : And  Gleams  from  the  East  on 
the  Sacred  Page,  i vol.,  large  8vo.  Illustrated.  $2,50. 

KADESH=BARNEA  : Its  ImpK)rtance  and  Probable  Site,  with  the  Storj' 

of  a Hunt  for  it ; including  Studies  of  the  Route  of  the  Exodus,  and  of  the 
Southern  Boundary  ot  the  Holy  Land,  i vol.,  large  8vo.  With  maps  and 
illustrations.  $3-oo. 

THE  BLOOD  COVENANT  : A Primitive  Rite  and  its  Bearings  on  Scrip- 
ture. Revised  and  enlarged  edition,  i vol.,  8vo.  ^2.00. 

FRIENDSHIP  THE  MASTER=PASSION  ; Or,  The  Nature  and  His- 
tory of  Friendship,  and  its  Place  as  a Force  in  the  World.  i vol.,  large  8vo, 
in  box.  ^3.00. 

THE  KNIGHTLY  SOLDIER  : A Biography  of  Major  Henry  Ward  Camp. 
I vol.,  8vo.  New  and  revised  edition.  With  illustrations.  $1.50. 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  : A series  of  brief  essays.  Six  volumes 
Square  i6mo.  Each  volume  complete  in  itself.  §2.50  the  set,  50  cents  a volume 


1.  Ourselves  and  Others. 

2.  Aspirations  and  Influences. 

3.  Seeing  and  Being. 

4.  Practical  Paradoxes. 


5.  Character-Shaping  and 

Character-Showing. 

6.  Duty  - Knowing  and 

Duty-Doing. 


YALE  LECTURES  ON  THE  SUNDAY=SCHOOL  : The  Sunday-school; 
its  Origin,  Mission,  Methods,  and  Auxiliaries.  The  Lyman  Beecher  Lectures 
before  Yale  Divinity  School,  for  1888.  i vol.,  small  8vo.  $1.50. 

A MODEL  SUPERINTENDENT:  A Sketch  of  the  Life,  Character,  and 
Methods  of  Work,  of  Henr>'  P.  Haven,  of  the  International  Lesson  Committee. 
I vol.,  i2mo.  With  portrait.  $1.00. 

TEACHING  AND  TEACHERS ; Or,  the  Sunday-school  Teacher's  Teaching 
Work,  and  the  Other  Work  of  the  Sunday-school  Teacher,  i vol.,  i2mo.  $1.00. 

HINTS  ON  CHILD=TRAINING.  i vol.,  small  i2mo.  $1.00. 

A LIE  NEVER  JUSTIFIABLE.  i vol.,  i2mo.  $1.00. 


JOHN  D.  WATTLES  & CO.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life 


AND 


Gleams  from  the  East  on  the  Sacred  Page 


BY 

H.  CLAY  ^TRUMBULL 

author  of  kadesh-barnea.  the  blood  covenant,  etc. 


PHILADELPHIA 

JOHN  D.  WATTLES  & COMPANY 
i8q4 


Copyright,  1894, 

BY 


H.  CLAY  TRUMBULL. 


PREFACE. 


The  words  of  the  Bible  gain  in  clearness  and 
depth  of  meaning  when  read  in  the  light  of  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  lands  of  the  Bible. 
But  there  are  now  so  many  good  books  prof- 
fered as  helps  in  this  direction,  that  a new  book 
must  justify  its  right  to  a new  place  by  showing 
wherein  it  has  advantages  over  works  already 
available. 

This  volume  is  not,  on  the  one  hand,  a mere 
narrative  of  personal  travel  and  observation  ; nor 
is  it,  on  the  other  hand,  a miscellaneous  collec- 
tion of  Oriental  illustrations  of  Bible  truths.  But 
it  is  a classified  treatment  of  certain  phases  of 
Oriental  life  and  methods  of  thought,  vivified  by 
personal  experiences  in  the  East ; and  herein  it 
has  a distinctive  character. 

Its  basis  is  a series  of  leClures  on  Oriental 
Social  Life,  delivered  before  the  Archaeological 
Association  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 


VI 


Preface. 


and  repeated,  by  invitation,  before  the  Semitic 
Club  of  Yale  University.  Added  to  these  are 
special  studies  on  various  topics,  in  the  realm  of 
Oriental  customs  and  traditions. 

An  aptitude  of  mind  for  Oriental  methods  of 
thought  and  life,  as  well  as  a knowledge  of  the 
ways  of  Orientals,  is  necessary  to  the  fullest  un- 
derstanding of  the  spirit  and  letter  of  the  Bible 
text.  Only  thus  can  an  Occidental  see  Bible 
truths  as  an  Oriental  sees  them.  I shall  be  glad 
if  my  way  of  seeing  or  of  showing  such  things 
helps  others  to  share  in  the  results  of  research 
in  this  important  field  of  fadt  and  thought. 

H.  Clay  Trumbull. 


Philadelphia, 

May  14^  iSg4. 


CONTENTS. 


THE  PAST  IX  THE  PRESENT. 

Advantage  of  studying  Oriental  social  life. — Eastern  life  as  it 
was,  shown  in  Eastern  life  as  it  is. — All  sights  and  sounds 
of  ancient  times  still  visible,  or  vibrant,  in  universal  space. 

— History  written  on  the  pages  of  the  air. — Earth  as  seen 
from  the  nearest  fixed  star. — Oriental  history  constantly 
re-ena(fling  in  Oriental  lands. — Unchangeableness  of  life 
in  the  East i 


BETROTHALS  AND  WEDDINGS  IN  THE  EAST. 

Viewing  Eastern  life  through  Eastern  eyes. — Attractiveness  of 
love  and  lovers. — Relative  importance  of  betrothal  and 
marriage  in  the  East. — Responsibility  of  parents  for  be- 
trothal of  their  children. — Dowry  not  purchase  money. — ■ 
Love  a result,  not  a cause,  of  marriage. — A wife  a gift  of  God. 
— How  a son  seeks  a wife. — A betrothal  scene  in  L'pper 
Egypt. — Mission  of  a “go-between.” — Gifts  to  friends 
of  bride  at  betrothal. — Contracts  of  betrothal  in  ancient 
Egypt  and  Assyria.  — ^Marriages  for  money  in  the  East 
and  in  the  West. — Marriages  for  political  power. — jSacred- 
ness  and  binding  force  of  betrothals  in  the  East. — Signifi- 
cance of  show  of  “capturing  a bride.” — Sentiment  the 
basis  of  survival  of  customs. — False  reasoning  of  scien- 

vii 


Contejits. 


viii 


tists. — Festivities  at  weddings.  — Husband  to  leave  his 
parents  for  his  wife. — Bridal  presents. — -Why  a wife  loads 
herself  with  gifts. — Divorce  customs. — Lady  Burton’s  ob- 
servations at  a Damascus  wedding. — Display  of  bride’s 
trousseau. — Bridal  ornaments. — Significance  of  bracelet, 
ring,  crown,  veil. — Wedding  processions.- — Wedding  scene 
at  Castle  Nakhl. — Joy  of  the  “friend  of  the  bridegroom.” 

— Unveiling  of  the  bride. — Lessons  of  betrothals  and  wed- 
dings in  the  East. — Power  of  romantic  love  in  primitive 
ages. — Legends  of  love  in  the  East. — Honor  accorded  to 
woman  in  earliest  times. — Mission  of  Christianity  ...  7 


HOSPITALITY  IN  THE  EAST. 

Oriental  estimate  of  hospitality. — Its  significance  and  scope. — 
Every  stranger  a lord  while  a guest. — Illustration  of 
Bed'wy  hospitality  near  Jezreel. — Cost  of  saluting  one  by 
the  way. — A test  of  honor. — Testimony  of  Thomas  Stevens. 
— Testimony  of  J.  L.  Burckhardt. — Lot  and  his  guests. — 
Levite  at  Gibeah. — Strife  for  the  right  to  entertain. — Con- 
cealing suffering  for  comfort  of  guests. — Refusal  to  receive 
remuneration. — Dr.  Hilprecht  and  the  shaykh  of  Zeta. — 
Having  one’s  satisfadlion  “heard.” — Show  of  fulness.- — - 
\'olney’s  testimony. — Lady  Anne  Blunt  and  Ibn  Rashid. — 
“ Given  to  hospitality.” — Guest-chambers  of  the  East. — 
shaykh’s  tenure  of  power. — Morier  and  Vambery  on  the 
Toorkomans. — Allah  Nazr  weeping  for  joy  over  a guest. — 
Khond  fidelity  to  laws  of  hospitality. — A paradise  for 
tramps. — Sharp  practice  of  Arabs. — Dr.  Edward  Robin- 
son’s guide  a victim. — A survival  in  the  “donation  party.” — 
An  experience  at  Dothan. — A tradition  of  Meccah. — Cove- 
nanting in  hospitality.  — Drinking  together. — Eating  to- 
gether.— Jesus  at  the  well  of  Jacob. — A lesson  at  Beersheba. 
— Jacob  and  Laban. — -Gibeonites  and  Israelites. — Illustra- 
tions by  Drs.  Hamlin  and  Thomson,  and  Major  Conder. 
— Covenant  of  salt. — Sacredness  of  the  right  of  asylum. — 
Customs  of  the  Druses. — A Turkish  hotel-keeper. — Hospi- 


Contents. 


IX 


tality  overriding  desire  for  blood-avenging.  — Murderer 
entertained  by  son  of  his  vicflim. — Arabs,  Moors,  and 
Khonds  alike  in  this. — Osman  and  Elfy  Bey. — A primitive 
\ irtue. — Irish  traditions. — religious  basis  for  this  senti- 
ment.— “Guests  of  God." — Explanation  of  these  customs. 

— Avenging  belongs  to  God. — Cities  of  refuge. — Jael  and 
Sisera. — Solomon  and  Joab. — Sodom  destroyed  for  its 
inhospitality. — Destrudlion  of  Gibeah.  — Naming  one’s 
“ dakheel." — Calling  on  the  Lord. — Antic|uity  of  this  senti- 
ment.— Egyptian  “Book  of  the  Dead.” — Greek  and 
Roman  customs. — “ Sibylline  Books.”— American  Indians. 

— Jesus  giving  judgment  on  the  outside  “nations.” — 
Teachings  of  Muhammad. — Bible  teachings. — Lessons 
from  the  virtue  of  Oriental  hospitality 73 


FUNERALS  AND  MOURNING  IN  THE  EAST. 

A sound  of  wailing  near  Saqqarah.— .A,  scene  of  mourning. — 
Records  of  ancient  Egypt. — Testimony  of  Herodotus. — 
Description  of  the  death-cry. — Hospitality  paramount  to 
grief. — Calling  on  the  dead. — Irish  wakes. — Professional 
mourners  in  the  East. — Hired  quartettes  in  the  West. — 
Genuine  sorrow  in  conventional  forms. — “ Skilful  in  lamen- 
tation.”— Bottling  tears.  — Cutting  one’s  flesh.  — Tear- 
cloths. — Speedy  burials. — Funeral  processions. — Funeral 
feasts. — Funeral  displays. — Persistency  of  these  customs. 
— Useless  efforts  to  check  them. — Forgiving  the  dead. — 
Burial  forbidden  to  the  unworthy. — Supplies  for  the  dead. 
— Customs  of  Egyptians,  of  Chinese,  of  Hindoos,  of  Ameri- 
can Indians. — Three  days  of  grace  for  the  spirit. — Lazarus 
of  Bethany. — Resurredlion  of  Jesus.  — Continuance  of 
mourning. — Mourning  scene  in  Palestine. — Songs  of  grief. 
— Periodic  exhibits  of  grief. — Sincerity  of  mourners. — 
Comparison  of  mourning  ways  in  the  East  and  the  West. 
— Mourning  days  in  Eastern  cemeteries. — Lessons  from 
Bethlehem  and  Ramah. — Tomb  of  Shaykh  Szaleh. — 
Veneration  for  muqams  in  Palestine. — “ Weeping  for  Tam- 


X 


Contents. 


muz.” — Chaldean,  Egypdan,  and  Greek  mourning. — Cry 
of  Isis  to  dead  Osiris. — Hope  of  immortality. — Silence  of 
Old  Testament  as  to  future  life.— Reason  for  this. — Primi- 
tive belief  in  life  beyond  the  grave. — Temptation  to  poly- 
theism.— Importance  of  present  life.  — Unique  inspira- 
tion of  Old  Testament  writers. — Lessons  from  Oriental 
social  life  . 143 


THE  VOICE  OF  THE  FORERUNNER. 

First  glimpse  of  the  East. — Harbor  of  Alexandria. — Babel  and 
Pandemonium. — Polyglot  crowd. — From  sea  to  shore. — 
Picluresque  confusion. — Kaleidoscopic  variety. — People, 
occupations,  animal  life,  buildings,  sounds, — novel  and 
Oriental. — Cr\-  of  the  forerunner  in  crowded  street. — Gaily 
dressed  “ sai's."  — Elijah  before  Ahab.  — Warning  by 
Samuel. — .Absalom’s  display. — Streets  of  Cairo. — Road  to 
Gheezeh. — Call  to  prepare  the  way.^ — Wretched  roads  in 
the  East. — Making  roads  ready  for  a coming  ruler  . . 209 


PRIMITIVE  IDEA  OF  "THE  WAY.” 

The  king’s  highway. — A royal  road  in  Egypt. — Assyrian  road- 
makers. — Semiramis  as  a road-builder. — Darius  and  Alex- 
ander.— Edom  and  Palestine.— Roman  roads. — Talmudic 
references  to  road-repairing. — Call  of  the  prophet  to  make 
ready  for  Messiah. — Preparing  the  way  in  Abyssinia. — 
Penalty  of  failure. — Road-repairing  in  Lebanon. — Way  of 
the  kingdom. — Religious  “ ways.” — Taouism,  Shintooism, 
Booddhism,  Sunnis. — "Ways”  of  evil. — Bible  references 
to  "ways.” — Jesus  "the  Way.” — Christianity  "the  way”  219 

THE  ORIENTAL  IDEA  OF  " FATHER.” 

Meaning  of  " father  ” in  the  East. — Every  group  a " family.” 

— A possessor,  inventor,  or  pioneer. — " Father  of  a sauce- 
pan.”— Sons  and  daughters  of  a " father.” — Shaykh,  sen- 


Contents. 


XI 


ior,  senator,  elder,  alderman. — Rising  up  before  the  hoary 
head. — Young  shaykhs  of  Arab  tribes. — Advantages  of  a 
patriarchal  beard. — Legal  ficlions. — Government  an  en- 
larged family  circle. — First  table  of  the  Law. — Divine  son- 
ship  of  kings. — Teachings  of  ancient  Egypt. — Reverence 
for  parents  in  the  East. — Refusing  cigarettes  in  a father’s 
presence.  — Lifelong  honor  to  a mother.  — Stability  of 
government  based  on  filial  reverence  — A “ command- 
ment with  promise." — Lessons  from  China. — (}od’s  repre- 
sentative   237 


PRAYERS  AND  PRAYING  IN  THE  EAST. 

Praying  on  the  corners  of  streets. — A fruit-seller  in  Alexandria. 

— A dragoman  at  the  wells  of  Moses.  — Thinking  to  be 
heard  of  men. — An  ’Azazimeh  shaykh  at  Beersheba. — 
Using  vain  repetitions. — Howling  darweeshes  at  Cairo. — 
Priests  of  Baal.  — Booddhist  prayer  formula. — Praying 
cylinders. — Oriental  forms  of  prayer. — Ancient  Egyptian 
ritual. — Rabbinical  direeftions  for  prayers. — Learning  how 
to  pray. — Making  ready  to  pray.  — Ablutions  and  posi- 
tions.— Praying  toward  a holy  place. — Niches  of  diredlion. 
Jerusalem  or  Meccah. — Wailing-place  of  the  Jews. — Mosk 
on  the  Mount  of  Olives. — Morning  call  to  prayer. — Larger 
privilege  of  Christians  255 


FOOD  IN  THE  DESERT. 

Possibilities  of  food  in  the  wilderness. — Supposed  changes  in 
the  desert  of  Sinai. — Contrast  of  the  desert  with  Palestine. 
— Limited  requirements  of  the  Bed'ween. — An  ordinary 
day’s  supply  of  food. — Value  of  parched  corn  and  sugar. 
—Likeness  of  this  to  manna. — Dependants  of  the  Con- 
vent of  St,  Catharine. — Living  on  dromedaries’  milk. — 
Fed  with  crumbs. — Rarity  of  animal  food. — Broiled  quails. 
— Fasting  and  gorging.— A good  appetite  as  a gift  of  God. 


Contents. 


xii 


— Caravan  possibilities  in  the  desert. — Food  brought  from 
afar. — Sowing  and  reaping  in  the  wadies. — Reasonable- 
ness of  the  Bible  miracles 277 

CALLS  FOR  HEALING  IN  THE  EAST. 

Reproduction  of  Bible  pictures  in  the  East  of  to-day. — Scenes 
of  suffering  in  Egypt. — Contrast  between  Egypt  and  the 
desert. — Halt  and  maimed  and  blind  and  diseased  in 
Palestine. — -Lepers  at  the  gate  of  Nablus. — Blind  men  at 
Jericho. — Approach  to  Constantinople. — Healing  looked 
for  from  the  hakeem. — Testimony  of  travelers. — Arab  at 
Wady  Gharandel. — Following  a Philadelphia  dentist. — 
Asking  for  a new  leg. — Sight  better  than  bread. — Calls 
for  healing  at  Castle  Nakhl. — Napoleon  at  Jaffa. — Prince 
of  Wales  at  Lebanon. — Reason  for  the  healing  miracles 
of  Jesus.  — Medical  missionaries.  — Testimony  of  Mrs. 
Isabella  Bird  Bishop. — Testimony  of  Sir  William  Muir. — 

Dr.  Allen  in  Korea. — Bible  promises 295 

GOLD  AND  SILVER  IN  THE  DESERT. 

Gold  and  silver  among  the  Israelites. — Golden  calf. — Taber- 
nacle treasures. — Borrowing  from  the  Egyptians. — Coins 
and  ornaments  worn  by  Oriental  women. — A wife’s  per- 
sonal possessions. — ProteClion  in  case  of  divorce. — A 
camel-driver's  loss  of  gold. — Gideon’s  spoil  from  the  Midi- 
anites. — A specimen  woman  of  the  desert. — Riches  of 
Arab  shaykhs. — Bakhsheesh  in  the  East. — Fig  paste  and 
a silk  handkerchief  for  the  governor. — Added  coin  for 
Shaykh  Moosa.  — A representative  dragoman. — Dr.  Hil- 
precht  and  his  muleteer. — Egyptian  bakhsheesh  to  the 
departing  Hebrews 319 

THE  PILGRIMAGE  IDEA  IN  THE  EAST. 

Prominence  of  pilgrimages  in  the  East. — Importance  of  the 
Meccah  Hajj  in  Egj’pt. — Track  of  the  Hajj  on  the  desert. 

— Pilgrimages  to  Jerusalem. — Footprint  of  Jesus  on  the 


Contents. 


Mount  of  Olives.  — Going  northward  in  Holy  Week. — 
Pilgrims  journeying  by  night. — Antiquity  of  pilgrimages. 

— Testimony  of  Herodotus. — Figurative  meaning  of  pil- 
grimage.— Abraham,  Jacob,  and  David. — Spiritual  mean- 
ing of  Hajj. — “ Songs  of  the  Goings  Up.” — Feast  of  taber- 
nacles.— Symbolism  of  the  three  feasts  of  the  Hebrews. — 
Strangers  and  pilgrims. — Pilgrimage  circuits. — Circuits  at 
Jericho. — Circuits  at  Jerusalem. — Circuits  in  the  syna- 
gogues.— Circuits  in  Christian  churches.  Circuits  in 
India. — Circuits  at  Meccah. — Booddhist  circumambula- 
tions. — Local  pilgrimages  in  Morocco. — Survivals  in  the 
Hebrides. — Survivals  in  America. — Survivals  in  children’s 
games. — The  lesson  of  the  pilgrimage 333 


AN  OUTLOOK  FROM  JACOB’S  WELL. 

A lovely  spot. — Plain  of  the  Cornfields. — Highway  of  the 
rulers. — Valley  of  Shechem. — Historic  associations. — Jesus 
and  the  woman  of  Samaria. — Work  in  the  grain-fields. — 
Covenant  in  drinking. — Saladeen  and  Prince  Arnald. — 
Omar  and  Hormozan. — Lesson  from  sowing  and  reaping. 

— Truth  taught  in  former  days. — Christianity  and  outside 
religions. — Words  of  Whittier. — Spirit  of  Christ  in  his 
missionarv’  followers 355 


THE  SAMARITAN  PASSOVER. 

Jerusalem  and  the  passover  sacrifice. — Samaritan  sacrifice  at 
Gerizim. — .\  mongrel  people.- — A visit  to  Gerizim  on  the 
passover  evening. — Preparations  for  the  sacrifice. — High- 
priest  and  assistants. — Worshipers. — Solemn  service. — 
Slaying  of  the  lambs. — Marking  with  the  blood. — Mutual 
rejoicings. — The  children's  share. — Spitting  and  roasting 
the  lambs. — A guest  of  the  high-priest. — .A.  taste  of  bitter 
herbs. — Midnight  cxy. — Uncovering  of  the  oven. — Pass- 
over  feast. — A storm. — After  the  storm. — “A  shadow  of 
the  things  to  come  ” 


371 


XIV 


Contents. 


LESSONS  OF  THE  WILDERNESS. 

Old  Testament  pictures. — The  wilderness. — Varying  titles. — 
Experiences  of  Hagar,  Moses,  Elijah. — Jesus  and  his 
temptations. — Paul  and  his  training. — Three  typical  lands. 

— Lessons  of  Arabia. — Variety  and  grandeur  in  the  desert. 

— Impressive  silence. — Loneliness. — God’s  region. — Man’s 
littleness.  — Man’s  dependence. — Man’s  needs. — Tokens 
of  God’s  love. — Stars,  flowers,  springs  of  water. — “Guests 
of  God." — Fitness  of  the  camel  to  the  region. — Lessons 
for  our  pilgrimage 387 


INDEXES. 


Topical  Index 41 1 

ScRiPTL'R.AL  Index 433 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

Pyramids  of  Gheezeh,  from  East  of  the  Nile i 

" Forty  centuries  look  down  upon  you." 

Tomb  of  Rachel,  with  Bethlehem  in  the  Distance 6 

Rich  with  memories  of  Rachel,  of  Ruth,  of  David,  and  of  Jesus. 

Egyptian  Bride  Starting  for  the  Bridegroom’s  Home  ....  7 

“ The  voice  of  mirth  and  the  voice  of  gladness,  . . . and  the  voice  of 
the  bride." 

Taj  Mahal  at  Agra 72 

“ One  majesty  of  whiteness  the  Taj  of  Agra  stands 
Like  no  work  of  human  builder,  but  a care  of  angel  hands.” 

Black  Tents  of  Bed'ween,  in  Northern  Africa 73 

" God's  guests  " in  the  desert  welcome  all  whom  God  sends. 

Well  of  Beersheba 142 

" If  thine  enemy  . . . thirst,  give  him  to  drink." 

" Pyramid  of  Degrees,”  at  Saqqarah 143 

Shadowing  the  dead  of  old,  and  the  mourners  of  to-day. 

Mourners  at  a Grave  in  Bethany 208 

“ She  goeth  unto  the  grave  to  weep  there." 


XV 


XVI 


List  of  Illustrations. 


PAGE 

Place  of  Muhammad  Alee,  in  Alexandria 209 

" Toward  the  East,  and  toward  the  glorious  land.” 

Sais,  an  Egyptian  Forerunner 218 

Your  sons  . . . shall  run  before  his  chariots.” 

Traveled  Way  in  the  Wilderness  of  Sinai 219 

“ Cast  up,  cast  up  the  highway ; gather  out  the  stones.” 

“ Appian  Way,”  the  “ Queen  of  Roads  ” 236 

"All  roads  lead  to  Rome.” 

Syrian  Milage  Shaykh 237 

“The  hoary  head  is  a crown  of  glory, 

If  it  be  found  in  the  way  of  righteousness.” 

Old  Beggar  by  the  Wayside 254 

" Thou  shall  rise  up  before  the  hoary  head,  and  honor  the  face 
of  the  old  man.” 

Postures  in  Prayers 255 

" He  stood,  and  kneeled  down  upon  his  knees,  . . . and  spread 
forth  his  hands  towards  heaven.” 

Mosk  on  the  Mount  of  Olives 276 

“ Every  night  he  went  out,  and  lodged  in  the  mount  that  is 
called  the  mount  of  Olives.” 

Women  Grinding  with  Hand-mill,  in  Palestine  ......  277 

“ There  shall  be  two  women  grinding  together.  ” 

Little  Bread-maker,  in  Egypt 294 

“ She  took  flour,  and  kneaded  it,  and  did  bake  unleavened 
bread  thereof." 


* 


List  of  Illustrations.  x\  ii 


PAGE 

Group  of  Lepers  near  Nablus 295 

“ These  lepers  came  to  the  outermost  part  of  the  camp." 

Blind  Leading  the  Blind,  in  Judea 318 

" Can  the  blind  guide  the  blind?  shall  they  not  both  fall  into  a pit  ? " 

•Abyssinian  Women,  with  Ornaments  and  Strings  of  Coins  . - 319 

“Jewels  of  gold,  ankle-chains,  and  bracelets,  signet-rings,  ear- 
rings, and  armlets." 

Bed'wy  Woman,  Carrying  Dried  Vines  for  Fuel 332 

" They  had  golden  nose-rings,  because  they  were  Ishmaelites." 

Starting  of  the  Mahmal,  or  Sacred  Canopy,  from  Cairo,  for 

Meccah 333 

"We  will  go  three  days’  journey  into  the  wilderness." 

Pilgrim  Climbing  up  the  Mountain  of  Moses  at  Sinai  . . . 354 

“ And  Moses  went  up  into  the  mount.” 

Jacob’s  Well,  with  Mount  Gerizim  on  the  Left 355 

“Jacob's  well  was  there.  Jesus,  . . . being  wearied  with  his 
journey,  sat  . . . by  the  well.” 

Oriental  Plowman 370 

“ One  soweth,  and  another  reapeth.” 

Xablus,  the  Site  of  Ancient  Shechem 371 

“ Abram  passed  through  the  land  unto  the  place  of  Shechem. 

. . . And  there  builded  he  an  altar  unto  the  Lord." 

Yakob  Haroon,  High-priest  of  the  Samaritans,  with  the  Samari- 
tan Pentateuch 386 

“ Jews  have  no  dealings  with  Samaritans.” 


List  of  Illustrations. 


xviii 


PAGE 

Outlook  on  the  Desert  of  Arabia 387 

" A desert  land,  ...  in  the  waste  howling  wilderness." 

Wady  Fayran,  with  “ Five-Peaked  Serbal”  in  the  Distance  . 408 

" He  brought  them  to  the  border  of  his  sanctuary, 

To  this  mountain-land  which  his  right  hand  had  purchased.” 


NOTE. 

These  illustrations  are  reproductions  in  ‘‘half-tone  ” from  pho- 
tographs by  Sebah  of  Constantinople ; Bonfils  of  Beyroot ; Bergheim 
of  Jerusalem;  Lekegian  of  Cairo,  Sommer  of  Naples,  Good  of 
Winchfield,  Hants,  England  ; the  British  Ordnance  Survey  of  the 
Peninsula  of  Sinai ; Pancoast  of  Philadelphia,  and  others.  Those 
at  pages  276,  294,  295,  333,  354,  are  from  the  valuable  colletflion  of 
Edward  L.  Wilson  of  New  York,  who  has  kindly  given  his  consent 
to  this  use  of  his  copyright  pictures. 


THE  PAST  IN  THE  PRESENT. 


The  prime  advantage  of  a study  of  Oriental 
social  life  is  that  the  past  is  there  found  repro- 
duced in  the  present  as  refledling  the  ancient 
history  of  our  race.  The  Oriental  social  life  of 
to-day  is  the  Oriental  social  life  of  former  days. 
There,  that  which  is,  is  that  which  has  been  ; and 
that  which  is  and  has  been  in  the  cradle-place  of 
humanity  is  that  which  has  put  its  impress  upon 
humanity  everj^vhere.  The  study  of  the  Oriental 
present  is,  in  fact,  a study  of  the  universal  past, 
and  therefore  it  is  a study  for  all  and  for  always. 

One  of  the  most  impressive  thoughts  that  ever 
held  the  human  mind  is  in  the  suggestion  that, 
in  accordance  with  the  immutable  laws  of  light 

I 


2 Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

and  motion,  ever}^  scene  in  human  histor)^  is  now, 
in  a sense,  visible  at  some  point  in  the  vast  uni- 
verse of  nature,  and  ever}^  sound  that  ever  broke 
the  silence  of  the  air  is  now  vibrating  somewhere 
within  the  limits  of  that  universe  ; so  that  all  the 
historic  and  all  the  unhistoric  past  is  actually  an 
ever-present  reality, — if  only  the  point  of  view 
and  the  eye  and  the  ear  be  suited  to  the  observa- 
tion of  that  which  is. 

It  is  not  a thoughtless  visionary,  but  a careful 
observer  of  the  laws  which  govern  matter,  who 
says:  “The  pulsations  of  the  air,  once  set  in 
motion  by  the  human  voice,  cease  not  to  exist 
with  the  sounds  to  which  they  gave  rise.  Strong 
and  audible  as  they  may  be  in  the  immediate 
neighborhood  of  the  speaker,  and  at  the  imme- 
diate moment  of  utterance,  their  quickly  attenu- 
ated force  soon  becomes  inaudible  to  human  ears. 
. . . But  these  aerial  pulses,  unseen  by  the  keen- 
est eye,  unheard  by  the  acutest  ear,  un perceived 
by  human  senses,  are  yet  demonstrated  to  exist 
by  human  reason  ; and,  in  some  few  and  limited 
instances,  by  calling  to  our  aid  the  most  refined 
and  comprehensive  instrument  of  human  thought, 
their  courses  are  traced  and  their  intensities  are 


The  Past  in  the  Present. 


measured.  . . . Thus  considered,  . . . the  air  itself 
is  one  vast  library,  on  whose  pages  are  forever 
written  all  that  man  has  ever  said  or  woman 
whispered.  There,  in  their  mutable  but  unerring 
characters,  mixed  with  the  earliest  as  well  as  with 
the  latest  sighs  of  mortality,  stand  forever  re- 
corded vows  unredeemed,  promises  unfulfilled, 
perpetuating  in  the  united  movements  of  each 
particle  the  testimony  of  man’s  changeful  will.” 

“ Let  us,”  says  another  thinker,  “ imagine  an 
observer,  with  infinite  powers  of  vision,  in  a star 
of  the  twelfth  magnitude.  He  would  see  the 
earth  at  this  moment  as  it  existed  at  the  time  of 
Abraham.  Let  us,  moreover,  imagine  him  moved 
forwards  in  the  diredlion  of  our  earth  with  such 
speed  that  in  a short  time  (say,  in  an  hour)  he 
comes  within  the  distance  of  a hundred  millions 
of  miles,  being  then  as  near  to  us  as  the  sun  is, 
whence  the  earth  is  seen  as  it  was  eight  minutes 
before  ; let  us  imagine  all  this,  quite  apart  from 
any  claims  of  possibility  or  reality,  and  then  we 
have  indubitably  the  following  result, — that  be- 
fore the  eye  of  this  observer  the  entire  history 
of  the  world,  from  the  time  of  Abraham  to  the 
present  day,  passes  by  in  the  space  of  an  hour.” 


4 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


These  suppositions  and  illustrations  are  in  the 
realm  of  the  imagination,  but  their  counterpart  is 
in  the  realm  of  simple  facl;  to  him  who  has  an 
outlook  upon  the  lands  of  Abraham’s  nomadic 
life  from  Chaldea  to  Egypt,  where  the  scenes  of 
!the  days  of  Abraham  are  the  every-day  scenes  of 
now.  Abraham — or  Ibraheem,  as  they  call  him 
to-day — is  still  to  be  seen  coming  out  from  the 
entrance  of  his  tent  to  greet  the  approaching 
strangers  who  have  caught  his  eye  in  the  dis- 
tance, and  to  urge  upon  them  the  welcome  of  his 
hospitality.  Host  and  guests,  and  tent  and 
bread  and  slaughtered  calf,  and  salutations,  are 
the  same  to-day  as  they  were  forty  centuries  ago.^ 
Rebekah  can  still  be  found  watering  her  camels 
at  the  Mesopotamian  well, — ready  to  consent  to 
her  parents’  betrothal  of  her  to  her  cousin  Isaac, 
in  another  land,  whom  she  has  never  seen.^  The 
marriage  of  Jacob  to  both  Leah  and  Rachel  is 
now  in  progress,  as  though  it  had  been  delayed 
many  times  the  seven  years  of  its  first  postpone- 
ment.^ The  same  cry  of  grievous  mourning 
which  startled  the  Canaanites  when  the  Egyp- 
tians came  up  with  the  body  of  Jacob  to  bury  it 


* Gen.  i8  : i-8. 


“Gen.  24  : 1-67. 


^ Gen.  29  : 1-30. 


The  Past  in  the  Present. 


5 


in  the  patriarchal  tomb  at  Hebron/  pierces  the 
ear  of  the  modern  listener,  from  the  Nile  to  the 
Tigris,  with  hardly  the  change  of  a quavering 
note  in  all  the  passing  centuries. 

Two  centuries  ago.  Sir  John  Chardin  wrote  : 
“ It  is  not  in  Asia  as  it  is  in  our  Europe,  where 
there  are  frequent  changes,  more  or  less,  in  the 
forms  of  things ; as  the  habits,  buildings,  garden- 
ing, and  the  like.  In  the  East  they  are  constant 
in  all  things  ; the  habits  are  at  this  day  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  the  precedent  ages  ; so  that 
one  may  reasonably  believe  that  in  that  part  of 
the  world  the  exterior  forms  of  things  (as  their 
manners  and  customs)  are  the  same  now  as  they 
were  two  thousand  years  since,  except  in  such 
changes  as  may  have  been  introduced  by  religion, 
which  are,  nevertheless,  very  inconsiderable.” 

A recent  Jewish  traveler  in  the  East,  from 
England,  says  similarly:  “Seeing  the  primitive 
character  of  the  dwellings  and  customs  [at  Beth- 
lehem], and  remarking  the  shepherds  and  their 
flocks  upon  the  neighboring  hills,  it  can  easily  be 
realized  how  David  must  have  appeared  when 
the  prophet  Samuel  met  him  here,  and  hailed 
* Gen.  50  ; 7-13. 


6 


Studies  in  07'iental  Social  Life. 


him  as  the  Lord’s  anointed  ; or,  seeing  the  exist- 
ing threshing-floor,  it  requires  but  little  force  of 
imagination  to  re-enact  the  whole  beautiful  idyl 
of  Ruth  and  Boaz.  For  nothing  has  changed  in 
Bethlehem  since  biblical  times.  The  march  of 
progress  has  gone  by,  and  omitted  to  pause  at 
this  and  other  kindred  spots  in  the  Holy  Land. 
May  it  not  be  in  order  that  we  may  realize  the 
simple  truth  of  the  Bible  narratives  ? ” 

The  East  of  to-day  is  the  East  of  all  the  days. 
To  note  the  Oriental  social  life  of  the  present  is  to 
read  history  in  the  vividness  of  reality. 


BETROTHALS  AND  WEDDINGS  IN 
THE  EAST. 


In  any  examination  of  the  fads  of  Oriental 
social  life,  it  is  important  to  ascertain  how  those 
fads  are  viewed  by  the  changeless  Oriental  mind, 
instead  of  looking  at  them  merely  as  they  would 
present  themselves  to  the  mind  of  a pradical  and 
progressive  Occidental.  Thus  alone  can  their 
true  significance  and  historic  value  be  recognized. 
And  thus  alone  can  they  be  to  us  a means  of 
light, — whether  that  light  shows  the  corredness 
or  the  error  of  any  of  our  favorite  opinions,  in 
the  realm  of  religion  or  of  science. 


/ 


8 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


No  phase  of  social  life  anywhere  is  likely  to 
be  more  uniformly  attractive  to  the  human  mind 
than  the  phases  of  courtship  and  marriage  ; for 
“the  truth  of  truths  is  love,”  and  in  the  West, 
as  in  the  East,  “all  mankind  love  a lover.”  Nor 
is  there  any  phase  of  Oriental  social  life  which 
is  more  suggestively  instructive,  in  its  salient 
points  of  comparison  and  of  contrast  with  Occi- 
dental customs,  than  that  of  betrothals  and  wed- 
dings. 

A betrothal  holds  a larger  prominence  in  its 
relation  to  marriage  in  the  East  than  in  the 
West ; and  the  arranging  of  a betrothal  there 
depends  on  the  parents  or  guardians  of  its  imme- 
diate parties,  rather  than  on  those  parties  them- 
selves. In  India  and  China,  children  are  often 
betrothed  by  their  parents  while  yet  in  infancy, 
or  even  before  their  birth  ; and  this  practice  is 
not  unknown  among  the  Semitic  peoples  of  the 
Mediterranean  coast.  Even  among  those  Orien- 
tal peoples  who  take  Into  account  the  inclinations 
and  preferences  of  the  young  man  in  a betrothal, 
the  wishes  of  the  young  woman,  or  girl,  are  rarely 
given  much  weight.  In  either  case  it  is  an  ex- 
ception for  the  young  persons  to  meet  each  other 


9 


Betrothals  and  JVeddinsss  in  the  East. 

o 

face  to  face  before  their  lot  is  fixed  by  the  be- 
trothal compact. 

Almost  universally,  in  the  East,  a betrothal  is 
based  upon  an  agreement  of  dowry  to  be  paid  by 
the  husband  to  the  family  of  the  wife  as  a pru- 
dential measure  in  connection  with  this  important 
transaction.  It  is  hardly  fair  to  speak  of  this 
“dowry”  as  the  “price  of  a wife,”  as  though  the 
father  were  aClually  selling  his  daughter.  Ar- 
ranging a “marriage  settlement”  in  any  com- 
munity is  by  no  means  a mere  bargain  and  sale, 
even  though  mercenary  motives  too  often  have 
their  influence  in  deciding  its  details. 

At  first  glance  it  would  seem  that  by  these 
customs  the  Oriental  quite  excluded  sentiment 
from  the  marriage  relation  ; but,  as  the  Oriental 
looks  at  it,  the  sentiment  properly  proceeds  from 
the  relation,  and  not  the  relation  from  the  senti- 
ment ; while  the  relation  itself  is  of  God’s  order- 
ing,— through  God’s  representatives,  the  parents 
or  guardians  of  those  brought  into  this  relation. 

Orientals  look  at  the  love  of  husband  and  wife, 
so  far,  much  as  we  look  at  the  love  of  brother  and 
sister.  We  say  that  brother  and  sister  should 
love  each  other  because  they  were  chosen  of  God 


lO  Studies  in  Oi'icntal  Social  Life. 

to  each  other,  by  means  of  their  parents.  Orien- 
tals say  the  same  of  husband  and  wife.  Their 
thought  is  Browning’s  thought,  that — 

“The  common  problem — yours,  mine,  every  one’s — 

Is  not  to  fancy  what  were  fair  in  life 
Provided  it  could  be  so ; but  finding  first 
What  may  be,  then  find  how  to  make  it  fair.’’ 

Whether  their  view  or  ours  of  the  place  of  senti- 
ment in  the  order  of  betrothal  and  marriage  is 
the  corredt  one,  let  us  not  misrepresent  or  ignore 
their  view,  with  the  purpose  of  thereby  showing 
a superiority  in  our  view  which  might  not  other- 
wise be  obvious. 

As  Dr.  Van  Lennep  expresses  it,  “The  Ori- 
ental theory  is  that  love  comes  after  marriage, 
and  that  it  can  be  kept  from  premature  develop- 
ment by  the  complete  separation  of  the  sexes.” 
Raj  Coomar  Roy,  a Hindoo  writer,  defending 
the  system  of  child  marriage  in  India,  in  the 
North  American  Review,  says  of  the  conjugal 
relation,  in  this  line  of  thought : “ It  is  expressly 
said  to  be  a divine  union.  Christ  said,  ‘What 
God  hath  joined  together  let  no  man  put  asun- 
der.’^ We  find  Solomon  calling  the  wife  a ‘gift 
* Matt.  19:6;  Mark  10  : 9. 


Betrothals  and  Weddings  in  the  East.  1 1 

from  the  Lorcl,’^  and  in  the  marriage  service 
appointed  by  the  Church  of  England  some  one 
is  required  to  stand  as  the  donor  of  the  bride,  as 
is  the  case  in  every  Hindoo  marriage.  ‘ Mar- 
riage,’ says  an  eminent  (Hindoo)  doblor  of  law, 
‘ is  viewed  as  a gift  of  the  bride  by  her  father, 
or  other  guardian,  to  the  bridegroom.’  The 
marital  union  is  thus  a divine  union  ; it  is  an  adt 
of  God,  and  not  of  man.  . . . The  Roman  Catho- 
lics regard  it  as  a sacrament ; so  do  the  Hindoos.” 
In  China,  also,  the  belief  prevails  that  matri- 
monial matches  are  made  in  heaven  ; and  at  the 
time  of  betrothal,  as  well  as  at  the  wedding,  red 
silk  cords  are  employed  as  a means  of  linking  the 
tokens  of  the  marriage  compadt,  in  accordance 
with  a tradition  that  at  their  birth  those  who  are 
to  be  husband  and  wife  have  their  feet  super- 
naturally  bound  together  by  an  invisible  red  cord 
— apparently  as  a symbol  of  a blood-covenanted 
union.  “When  this  cord  has  been  tied,”  says 
the  tradition,  “though  the  parties  be  of  un- 
friendly families,  or  of  different  nations,  it  is  im- 
possible to  change  their  destiny.” 

Among  Semitic  peoples  generally  it  is  held  that 


' Prov.  19  : 14. 


12 


Studies  m Oriental  Social  Life. 


as  the  divine  Father  provided  avife  for  Adam,’ 
so  the  earthly  father  is  to  select  a wife  for  his 
son  ; or,  in  the  absence  of  the  father,  this  duty 
devolves  on  the  mother  or  on  the  elder  brother. 
Thus  it  was  that  Abraham  felt  his  responsibility 
to  secure  a wife  for  Isaac, ^ and  that  Hagar,  when 
alone  with  her  son  in  the  wilderness,  sought 
out  a wife  for  Ishmael  from  Eg}'pt.^  It  is  in  the 
same  view  of  the  right  and  the  duty  of  the  parent 
to  see  his  children  duly  wedded,  that  the  father 
bestows  his  daughter  upon  the  man  whom  he 
deems  worthy  of  her.  So  it  was  that  Reuel  gave 
his  daughter  Zipporah  to  Moses  as  a wife,'’  that 
Caleb  promised  his  daughter  Achsah  as  a wife  to 
the  man  who  should  capture  Kiriath-sepher, that 
Saul  pledged  the  hand  of  his  royal  daughter  to 
that  soldier  who  should  kill  the  boastful  cham- 
pion of  the  Philistines,®  and  similarly  with  others 
all  along  the  Bible  stor)\ 

If,  indeed,  an  Oriental  son  has  come  to  mar- 
riageable age  without  being  betrothed  by  his 
parents,  it  is  his  privilege  to  ask  his  father  to 
find  a wife  for  him,  or  to  secure  one  of  whom 

iGen.  2 ; 18-24.  'Gen.  24  : 1-4.  'Gen.  21  : 14-21. 

^Exod.  2 : 16-21.  'Josh.  15  : 16,  17  ; Judg.  i ; 12,  13. 

® I Sam.  17  : 1-25. 


Betrothals  and  U cddings  in  the  East.  13 

he  has  already  known  something.  Then  it  is  for 
the  father  to  decide  whether  his  son’s  request 
shall  be  recognized  as  a reasonable  one.  Thus 
it  was  in  the  Bible  story  when  young  Shechem, 
the  son  of  Hamor,  had  fallen  in  love  with  Dinah, 
the  daughter  of  Jacob,  “Shechem  spake  unto  his 
father  Hamor,  saying.  Get  me  this  damsel  to 
wife;”^  and  when  Samson  had  seen  a dauofhter 
of  the  Philistines  in  Timnah  who  pleased  him, 
“ he  came  up,  and  told  his  father  and  his  mother, 
and  said,  I have  seen  a woman  in  Timnah  of  the 
daughters  of  the  Philistines  : now  therefore  get 
her  for  me  to  wife.”'^ 

Even  the  daughter’s  choice  is  sometimes  recog- 
nized as  worthy  of  consideration,  or  as  essential 
to  the  betrothal.  This  was  so  in  olden  time  also. 
Thus  the  parents  of  Rebekah  asked  her  if  she 
would  go  with  Eliezer  to  become  the  wife  of 
Isaac,  before  they  would  send  her  away;'^  and 
thus  Saul  consulted  the  wishes  of  his  daughter 
Michal,  in  proposing  to  betroth  her  to  David, 
after  her  sister  Merab  had  been  given  to  an- 
other in  violation  of  Saul’s  promise.* 


’ Gen.  34  : 1-4. 
^Gen.  24  ; 53-58. 


"Judg.  14  : 1-3. 

* I Sam.  18  : 17-21. 


14  Studies  in  Oriental  Soeial  Life. 

Because  customs  in  connection  with  betrothal 
and  weddinor  ceremonies  in  the  East  differ  in 

o 

many  particulars,  a description  of  them  as  ob- 
served in  any  one  place,  or  at  any  one  time,  can- 
not be  accepted  as  covering  all  their  varieties. 
Yet,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  always  a gain  in 
a specific  description  as  bringing  before  the  mind 
a more  vivid  idea  of  representative  customs  than 
can  be  obtained  through  any  description  in  gen- 
eral terms.  I will  describe,  therefore,  a method 
of  wife-seekinor  and  betrothal  amono^  the  Arabs 

o o 

of  Upper  Egypt,  as  I had  it  from  the  lips  of  a 
native  Syrian,  who  was  familiar  with  these  details, 
from  their  frequent  observing  during  her  resi- 
dence there,  and  who  tells  me  that  it  is  much  the 
same  as  in  portions  of  Upper  Syria,  especially  in 
the  Lebanon  region. 

Ydien  a young  man  of  this  region  has  acquired 
sufficient  means  for  a marriage  dowry,  or,  as 
we  should  say,  is  able  to  provide  for  a wife,  he 
goes  to  his  father  and  tells  him  that  he  wants  to 
marry.  With  his  father’s  approval,  he  then  goes 
to  his  mother  and  asks  her  to  look  up  a girl 
to  be  his  wife.  The  young  man  is  not  without 
his  conception  of  an  ideal  beauty  in  person  and 


Betrothals  and  Weddings  in  the  East.  1 5 


character,  so  he  describes  the  girl  he  would 
like  to  have  his  mother  find  for  him.  Her  face, 
her  form,  her  eyes,  her  hair,  her  disposition,  her 
manner,  all  are  dwelt  upon  in  this  description  ; 
and  the  mother  is  enjoined  to  secure  the  realizing 
of  that  ideal. 

Charged  with  this  mission,  the  mother,  accom- 
panied by  women  relatives,  sets  out  upon  her 
tour  of  examination  among  the  families  of  her 
kinsfolk  who  are  known  to  have  marriageable 
daughters.  The  mothers  of  such  daughters  are 
as  keenly  alive  to  their  responsibility  and  oppor- 
tunities among  the  mountains  of  Lebanon,  or  by 
the  banks  of  the  Nile,  as  at  Long  Branch,  Bar 
Harbor,  or  the  Catskills ; and  the  formal  call 
on  one  of  them  by  the  mother  of  an  eligible 
young  man  is  likely  to  be  recognized  in  its  fullest 
possibilities. 

The  shaking  of  hands  at  such  a time  between 
the  two  matrons  (including  the  clasping  of  each 
other’s  thumbs, — as  if  in  survival  of  the  primi- 
tive blood -covenanting  by  the  pierced  thumbs) 
will  sometimes  occupy  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes. 
While  the  servants  are  bringing  rugs  and  coffee 
for  the  guests,  in  the  reception-room  on  the 


1 6 Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

lower  floor,  the  hostess  mother  sends  word  to 
her  daughter  upstairs  to  dress  herself  at  her  best 
and  await  a summons  to  come  down. 

It  is  a custom  in  the  East  to  serve  two  cups 
of  coffee  to  a guest : one  on  his  arrival,  as  a 
token  of  covenanting  with  him  ; the  second  at 
the  close  of  the  interview,  as  an  intimation  that 
the  conference  is  at  an  end  and  that  it  closes 
amicably.  After  taking  the  first  cup  on  such  an 
occasion  as  this,  the  visiting  mother,  with  due 
circumlocution,  inquires  after  the  marriageable 
daughter  of  her  hostess.  The  latter  replies  by 
praising  her  daughter,  laying  special  emphasis 
on  her  modesty  and  shrinking  bashfulness.  As 
the  request  for  the  daughter’s  appearance  is 
repeated,  her  mother  expresses  the  fear  that  she 
would  adlually  faint  from  fright  if  summoned  into 
that  presence  ; but  at  last  the  mother  yields  to 
the  urgent  requests  for  a sight  of  her  daughter 
to  the  extent  of  going  to  the  foot  of  the  stairs 
and  calling  to  her  to  come  down  and  serve  the 
second  cup  of  coffee  to  her  mother’s  guests. 

In  such  a case,  the  daughter  never  responds 
to  the  first  call.  She  will  exhibit  no  such  un- 
seemly haste  as  that  for  a settlement  in  life ! 


Betrothals  and  JVeddings  in  the  East. 


17 


A second  call  is  made  to  her  by  her  mother,  a 
third,  a fourth,  a fifth,  or  more,  before  she  makes 
her  appearance.  When  at  last  she  comes,  she 
is  closely  veiled.  In  her  hand  she  brings  a tray 
bearing  the  coffee,  which  she  proffers  timidly. 
The  visitors  refuse  to  accept  the  parting  cup 
until  They  have  seen  the  face  of  its  bearer. 
Pressing  their  request  they  lift  the  veil,  and  the 
candidate  is  under  examination.  Her  face,  eyes, 
hair,  expression,  all  are  scrutinized.  If  the  ob- 
servers are  pleased,  they  return  to  their  home, 
and  the  praises  of  the  approved  girl  are  sounded 
in  the  ears  of  the  wife-seeking  young  man. 

All  this  is  preliminary  to  the  betrothal.  That 
follows  in  its  order.  When  a young  man  informs 
his  father  that  he  desires  to  obtain  a specified 
young  woman  for  his  wife,  the  father  calls  in  a 
wakeel,  or  deputy,  to  acl  as  “ the  friend  of  the 
bridegroom,”^  or  would-be  bridegroom,  or  as 
his  “best  man”  in  the  negotiations  to  be  made. 
This  deputy  is  fully  informed  of  the  state  of 
affairs,  and  the  requisite  dowry,  or  the  portion 
of  it  which  is  to  be  paid  at  the  time  of  the  be- 
trothal contradl,  is  put  into  his  hands.  Accom- 

* Judg.  14  : 20 ; John  3 : 29. 

2 


1 8 Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

panied  by  the  young  man’s  father,  or  by  some 
other  male  member  of  the  family,  or  by  both, 
the  deputy  seeks  an  interview  with  the  parents 
of  the  young  woman. 

Arriving  at  the  house,  the  deputy  asks  if  “the 
father  of  Maryam” — or  whatever  the  young 
woman’s  name  may  be — is  at  home.  When  the 
latter  appears  to  greet  his  guests,  he  is  told  that 
the  deputy  will  speak  for  the  party.  As  coffee 
is  proffered,  the  deputy  says  that  the  visitors 
have  come  upon  a very  important  mission,  and 
that  they  can  neither  eat  nor  drink  until  that 
mission  is  accomplished.  It  is  now  as  it  was  in 
the  days  of  Abraham.  When  Eliezer  sought 
Rebekah  for  Isaac,  and  he  was  proffered  refresh- 
ments in  the  house  of  her  father,  he  said,  “ I will 
not  eat  until  I have  told  mine  errand.”^  At  this 
intimation  of  the  already  suspeeded  objedl  of  the 
visit,  the  father  of  the  young  woman  sends  for 
his  wakeel  to  represent  him,  or  his  daughter,  as 
a deputy  in  the  negotiations  desired.  When 
the  two  deputies  are  face  to  face  on  their  rugs, 
the  business  of  the  hour  is  fairly  open. 

“Our  son  Yoosef,”  says  the  groom’s  best 


* Gen.  24  : 33. 


19 


Betrothals  and  J\^cddm^s  in  the  East. 


man,  “ desires  to  marry  your  daughter  Marj^am.” 
When  the  question  of  dowr)',  or  marriage  settle- 
ment, is  satisfactorily  adjusted,  the  same  “best 
man  ” continues  : “ But  suppose  our  son  is  a lazy 
man,  and  will  make  a bad  husband  ; suppose 
he  is  one  who  will  beat  his  wife,  and  will  fail  to 
provide  her  with  a good  home  ; — are  you  willing 
to  give  her  to  him  even  then  ? Just  as  he  is,  he 
wants  to  be  a husband  to  her.”  If  the  father 
of  the  bride,  who  is  standing  by,  is  content,  he 
answers  : “ Our  daughter  shall  be  a slave  to  your 
son  ; a servant  of  his  servant  t and  her  life  and 
her  honor  shall  be  under  his  feet.”  Here  is  the 
father  “giving  away”  his  daughter  to  a husband 
“for  better  or  for  worse  ” — especially  for  worse, 
“to  obey  him  and  serve  him,”  after  the  most 
approved  modern  and  Occidental  style. 

Then  it  is  for  the  bride’s  deputy  to  make  his 
qualifications  for  the  party  whom  he  represents. 
“You  are  come  to  secure  my  principal’s  daughter 
as  a wife  for  your  son,”  he  says.  “But  how  do 
you  know  her  ? It  may  be  she  is  blind.  It  may 
be  she  is  lazy  and  good  for  nothing.  It  may  be 
she  will  not  make  a good  wife.  Perhaps  she 

* I Sam.  25  : 40,  41 


20 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


is  in  jDoor  health.  How  do  you  know  she  is  a 
suitable  person  to  be  his  wife?”  Thereupon 
the  groom’s  father  answers:  “Supposing  your 
daimhter  to  have  all  the  diseases  and  defeHs  in 

o 

the  world,  my  son  is  willing  to  take  her  for  his 
companion  ; and  he  wants  her  to  stand  by  his 
side  throuorhout  his  life.” 

o 

At  this  point  the  deputies  rise,  and  all  par- 
ties exchanofe  congratulations  with  one  another. 
Coffee  is  brought  in,  and  they  partake  of  it  to- 
gether. The  deputies  draw  up  a written  contract, 
which  is  signed  by  the  two  fathers,  a copy  being 
given  to  each  of  them.  A portion  of  the  bride’s 
dowry  is  paid  at  once  on  the  groom’s  behalf,  the 
remainder  being  kept  back  to  be  paid  to  the  wife 
in  the  event  of  her  divorce.  The  bride’s  father 
is  expecled  to  give  a like  sum  with  that  paid  by 
the  groom, — the  entire  amount  being  the  bride’s 
portion,  which  is  ordinarily  invested  in  coins  or 
jewelry  to  be  worn  by  the  bride  as  her  exclusive 
personal  property.  At  the  close  of  the  betrothal 
ceremony  the  parties  separate  with  an  under- 
standing of  the  date  when  the  bridegroom  will 
come  to  claim  his  bride. 

There  arc,  as  I have  said,  many  variations  in 


Betyothals  and  JVeddings  in  the  East.  21 

these  betrothal  customs  in  different  parts  of  the 
East,  and  among  persons  of  different  religions  in 
the  same  region  ; yet  certain  main  features  are 
observable  throua-h  all  the  varieties  of  form. 

o 

Instead  of  the  mother  of  the  young  man  going 
herself  on  a tour  of  inspection  in  search  of  a 
bride,  a woman  “go-between”  is  often  employed 
to  look  up  a desirable  match  in  the  circle  of 
the  young  man’s  kinsfolk  and  acquaintance.  In 
Egypt  and  Syria,  as  in  China,  these  “go-be- 
tweens,” or  “match-makers,”  form  an  important 
class  in  the  community ; and  their  occupation 
gives  a fine  opportunity  for  wisdom  and  tadt,  as 
well  as  for  shrewdness  and  deceit,  in  counsel 
and  action. 

Sometimes  these  go-betweens  arrange  all  the 
preliminary  details  of  a betrothal ; and,  again, 
they  simply  report  their  first  observations  to 
their  principal,  who  then  manages  to  enter  the 
hareem  reported  from,  to  learn  the  truth  for  her- 
self. It  would  appear,  however,  throughout  the 
East,  that  the  parents  of  the  young  people, 
rather  than  the  young  people  themselves,  are 
the  chief  contracting  parties  to  a contract  of 
betrothal ; that  a contract  of  betrothal  is  the  real 


2 2 Shidies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

contracl:  of  marriage  ; that  a payment  of  dowry 
to  the  bride,  or  of  compensation  to  her  parents, 
is  made  on  the  part  of  the  bridegroom  at  the 
time  of  betrothal ; and  that  gifts  to  the  bride  and 
to  other  members  of  her  family  are  usually  made 
on  the  part  of  the  bridegroom  in  conjunction  with 
a betrothal. 

There  are  gleams  of  all  these  truths  in  the 
Bible  narratives  as  well  as  in  the  unearthed 
records  of  ancient  Egypt  and  Babylon.  Eliezer 
appears  as  the  go-between  in  arranging  the 
betrothal  of  Isaac  and  Rebekah.^  His  first  inti- 
mation to  her  of  the  objeCt  of  his  coming  was  his 
gift  to  her,  in  the  name  of  his  master,  Abraham, 
of  “ a golden  [nose]  ring  of  half  a shekel  weight, 
and  two  bracelets  for  her  hands  of  ten  shekels 
weight  of  gold;””  and  after  her  father  and 
brother  had  betrothed  her  to  the  yet  unseen 
Isaac,  this  go-between  “brought  forth  jewels  of 
silver,  and  jewels  of  gold,  and  raiment,  and  gave 
them  to  Rebekah  : he  gave  also  to  her  brother 
and  to  her  mother  precious  things.”^ 

When  Hamor  would  have  won  the  daughter  of 

*Gen.  24  : 1-6.  ^Gen.  24  : 22 ; comp.  v.  47  (Rev.  t'er.). 

3 Gen.  24  : 50-53. 


Betrothals  and  JVcddijigs  in  the  East.  23 

Jacob  for  his  son  Shechem,  he  said  to  her  father  : 
“Ask  me  never  so  much  dowry  and  gift,  and  I 
will  give  according  as  ye  shall  say  unto  me  : but 
give  me  the  damsel  to  wife.”^  Samson’s  go-be- 
tween,  “ his  companion,  whom  he  had  used  as 
his  friend,”"  was  given  the  betrothed  wife  of 
Samson  ; he  having  evidently  spoken  for  himself, 
as  honest  John  Alden  refused  to  do  while  act- 
ing as  a go-between  for  the  Samson  of  Mas- 
sachusetts  Bay.  An  Arabic  proverb  of  to-day 
shows  that  Samson  was  not  the  last  suitor  to  be 
betrayed  by  his  go-between  ; for  it  says  of  any 
man  who  is  false  to  his  employer  or  principal : 
“ He  went  to  woo  [her  for  a friend],  and  married 
her  himself” 

The  fair  equivalent  value  of  a marriageable 
daughter  was  specified  in  the  Levitical  law  ; ^ 
the  exacting  of  personal  service,  or  services, 
from  the  bridegroom  in  lieu  of  dowry  (which  is 
still  a custom  in  some  parts  of  the  East)  was 
illustrated  in  the  case  of  Jacob,'*  and  of  Othniel,® 
and  of  David.® 

Contracts  of  betrothal  between  the  parents  of 

‘Gen.  34  : 12.  14  : 20. 

^ Deut.  22  : 28,  29;  Exod.  22  : 16,  17.  ‘Gen.  29  : 15-28. 

® Josh.  1 5 ; 16,  17  ; Judg.  i : 12,  13.  ® i Sam.  17:25;  18  : 17-27. 


24  Studies  in  Oi'icntal  Social  Life. 

young  persons  are  among  the  documents  re- 
covered from  the  ruins  of  ancient  Egypt  and 
Assyria  ; and  these  contracts  show  that  the  pay- 
ment of  dowry  to  the  bride  or  to  her  parents 
was  an  essential  part  of  every  such  transaction. 
The  money  given  to  the  bride  was  spoken  of  in 
those  days  as  “ pin-money,”  or  “toilet-money;” 
and  the  prevalence  of  such  terms  for  the  modern 
translation  of  those  old-time  contracts  shows  that 
the  mercenary  element  in  plans  of  wedded  life 
has  had  enough  of  a survival  to  be  easily  recog- 
nized by  the  present  generation. 

Sir  Richard  Burton,  who  has  perhaps  traveled 
more  extensively  and  more  observantly  among 
both  civilized  and  uncivilized  peoples  than  any 
other  man  of  this  generation,  says  cynically,  on 
this  point,  that  women  are  “a  marketable  com- 
modity in  barbarism  as  in  civilization.”  But  it 
is  hardly  fair  to  limit  the  mercenary  element  in 
marriage  to  the  female  sex.  East  or  West.  There 
are  cases  in  Christian  lands,  whatever  may  be 
true  of  the  lands  of  barbarism,  where  it  is  men 
who  are  boucrht,  rather  than  women  ; and  where 
parents  who  are  able  to  give  their  daughters  a 
sufficient  sum  of  purchase  money,  or  dowry,  can 


Betrothals  and  Weddings  in  the  East.  25 


hope  to  buy  a husband  of  almost  any  desirable 
pattern,  all  the  way  along  from  a spick-and-span 
dude  to  a dilapidate  duke  or  an  impecunious 
prince — whichever  way  the  gradation  runs.  Or, 
if  the  woman  has  had  some  experience  in  the 
matrimonial  line,  she  can  sometimes  make  the 
purchase  for  herself  with  the  money  of  a former 
husband — dead  or  divorced.  But  this  is  quite 
apart  from  marriage  customs  as  a rule.  West 
and  East. 

Betrothals  in  the  East  are  often  made  as  a 
means  of  a social  or  political  alliance  between 
families  or  rulers.  This  has  always  been  so 
there  ; and  a survival  of  the  custom  is  found  in  the 
marriages  for  diplomatic  reasons  which  prevail  in 
the  royal  families  of  Europe  to-day.  Rameses  II., 
in  the  days  of  Moses,  married  a daughter  of  the 
king  of  the  Hittites  as  a conclusion  of  a treaty  of 
peace  with  that  sovereign  after  the  great  battle  of 
Kadesh-on-the-Orontes.  Solomon  made  several 
marriages  of  this  character,^  and  so  did  other 
rulers  of  whom  the  Bible  tells  us.^ 

While  I was  on  the  desert  of  Sinai,  my  drago- 

* I Kings  3 : I ; 9 : 16 ; 11:3. 

^ I Kings  11:19;  16:31;  2 Kings  8 : 18 ; 2 Chron.  21  : 6. 


26  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

man,  finding  much  difficulty  in  arranging  terms 
with  the  Teeyahah  Bed'ween,  told  me  of  a plan 
of  his  to  marry  a daughter  of  the  chief  shaykh 
of  that  tribe  in  order  to  better  his  prospedts  of 
safe  transit  in  that  region.  And  there  are  men 
on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic  who  would  appreciate 
this  phase  of  Oriental  shrewdness. 

A betrothal  in  the  East  is  counted  quite  as 
sacred  and  quite  as  binding  as  a marriage  cere- 
mony. It  may  indeed  be  broken,  but  its  break- 
ing is  even  more  of  a matter  than  a divorce,  and 
a woman  who  is  betrothed  is  looked  upon  as 
already  a wife.  In  India,  a girl  betrothed  in 
childhood  is  a widow  for  life,  if  he  to  whom  she 
was  betrothed  die  before  she  has  seen  him. 
Jacob’s  betrothal  to  Rachel  was  a period  of  full 
seven  years  ; and  when  Jacob  claimed  her,  at  the 
close  of  that  period,  his  words  to  her  father  were, 
“ Give  me  my  wife  not  Give  to  me  thy  daugh- 
ter to  be  my  wife,  but  Give  to  me  the  one  who  is 
my  wife. 

The  frequent  references  in  the  Levitical  law 
to  “a  virgin  betrothed  unto  an  JiusbandS  and  to 
a man  who  “ hath  betrothed  a wife  and  hath 

* Gen.  29  : 20,  21.  * Deut.  22  : 23,  24;  Lev'.  19  : 20. 


Betrothals  and  IVeddmgs  in  the  East.  27 


not  taken  her,”^  as  well  as  the  later  references 
to  Joseph  and  Mary  of  Nazareth  during  the 
time  of  their  betrothal,^  show  that  the  primitive 
view  of  the  betrothal  compact  has  been  much 
the  same  among  Semitic  peoples  as  among  the 
Aryans.  In  some  communities  a feast,  with  its 
gathering  of  the  friends  of  both  parties,  is  an 
accompaniment  of  a betrothal,  while  in  other 
communities  all  festive  displays  are  postponed 
to  the  time  of  the  taking  of  the  bride  to  the 
bridegroom’s  home. 

Among  some  of  the  Arab  tribes  of  the  Sinaitic 
Peninsula,  when  a young  girl  has  been  betrothed 
by  her  parents  to  a suitor  for  her  hand,  or  while 
negotiations  for  a betrothal  are  in  progress,  she 
flies  to  the  mountains  as  if  she  would  escape  the 
betrothal  tie.  Then  it  devolves  upon  him  who 
has  won  her  parents’  consent  to  his  possession 
of  her,  to  make  good  his  right  to  her  by  finding 
and  winning  her  for  himself.  He  must  pursue 
her,  and  bring  her  back  to  her  parents’  tent,  or 
his  betrothal  compact  is  a failure.  If  she  be 
really  averse  to  the  match,  she  eludes  capture  if 

^ Deut.  '20  ; 7 ; 28  ; 30. 

* Matt.  I : 18-25  ; Luke  i : 26,  27  ; 2:4,  5. 


28 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


it  is  possible  for  her  to  do  so  ; but  if  she  be  not 
unwilling  to  ratify  the  betrothal,  she  makes  only 
a reasonable  show  of  earnestness  in  this  conven- 
tional attempt  at  escape.  Instances  are  not  un- 
known, however,  of  the  suicide  of  young  girls, 
at  such  a time,  in  preference  to  an  unwelcome 
marriage. 

This  custom  of  “ capturing  a bride  ” is  preva- 
lent, in  one  form  or  another,  widely  throughout 
the  East,  and  in  other  parts  of  the  world  as  well. 
Its  significance  would  seem  to  be  obvious,  as 
based  upon  the  natural  characteristics  of  woman, 
and  upon  the  circumstances  of  her  betrothal  to  a 
husband  by  the  will  of  her  parents  without  her 
prior  consent  to  the  arrangement.  A woman  has 
a will  of  her  own,  and  there  was  never  a time 
when  she  did  not  have.  If  a woman’s  will  be  not 
recognized  at  the  start,  it  has  to  be  met  and  con- 
quered,  in  one  way  or  another,  sooner  or  later. 
A modest  shrinking  from  the  entire  surrender 
of  herself  to  another  is  instinclive  in  a woman’s 
nature.  She  must  manifest  it,  and  a way  has  to 
be  found  for  her  to  do  so. 

Moreover,  it  is  natural  for  a man  to  prize  most 
that  which  costs  him  most,  and  to  depreciate  the 


Betrothals  ajid  Weddings  in  the  East.  29 


value  of  that  which  can  be  had  for  the  asking. 
Hence,  whatever  betrothal  compabl  is  made  for 
a young  woman  by  her  father,  at  the  request  of  a 
young  man,  it  still  remains  for  the  young  man  to 
win  for  himself  her  whom  he  would  have  to  him- 
self, and  for  the  young  woman  to  say  whether  she 
shall  be  fairly  won,  or  shall  be  taken  in  spite  of 
herself.  And  so  it  is  that  apart  from  all  question 
of  parental  control,  or  of  bargain  and  promise 
between  parent  and  suitor,  he  who  would  have  a 
wife  must  capture  her  for  himself ; and  the  widely 
prevalent  custom  of  “marriage  by  capture”  is 
based,  like  every  other  world-wide  custom,  upon 
a sentiment  that  is  common  to  the  human  race, 
and  not  upon  any  histo7'ic  praftice  which  was  an 
incident  of  a passing  period. 

Yet,  strange  to  say,  many  a truth-seeking 
sociologist  or  anthropologist,  more  learned  than 
wise,  has  seriously  advocated  the  claim  that  this 
simple  and  natural  exhibit  of  manly  and  womanly 
feeling  in  connection  with  betrothal  and  marriage 
is  to  be  accepted  as  merely  a survival  of  a pre- 
historic method  of  securing  wives  from  the  peo- 
ple of  a hostile  tribe  by  rapine  and  violence.  If 
it  were  not  that  this  claim  had  been  put  for- 


30  Studies  m Oriental  Social  Life. 

ward  and  approved  by  men  of  eminence  in  the 
world  of  science  and  letters,  it  would  hardly  de- 
serve any  other  treatment  than  sheer  ridicule. 
As  it  is,  it  stands  out  as  one  of  the  remarkable 
illustrations  of  unscientific  method  employed  in 
the  realm  of  science. 

The  poets  have  a truer  appreciation  of  senti- 
ment than  the  mere  scientists  in  their  estimate 
of  a woman’s  way  with  a wooing  lover.  Milton, 
describing  the  first  woman’s  reception  of  the  first 
lover’s  approaches,  says,  in  the  name  of  Adam  : 

“ She  heard  me  thus,  and  though  divinely  brought, 

Yet  innocence  and  virgin  modesty. 

Her  virtue  and  the  conscience  of  her  worth. 

That  would  be  wooed,  and  not  unsought  be  won, 

Wrought  in  her  so,  that  seeing  me  she  turned  ; 

I followed  her.” 

And  Dryden  makes  Eve  to  answer  Adam’s  ap- 
peal with  : 

“ Somewhat  forbids  me,  which  I cannot  name  ; 

For  ignorant  of  guilt  1 fear  not  shame  ; 

But  some  restraining  thought,  I know  not  why, 

Tells  me  you  long  should  try,  I long  deny." 

A theory  by  which  this  idea  of  primitive  mar- 
riage by  capture  is  supported  is,  that,  in  primeval 


Betrothals  and  Weddings  in  the  East.  31 


times,  marriages  between  members  of  the  same 
family  or  tribe  were  not  permitted  ; hence  wives 
must  be  secured  by  force  outside  these  lines. 
But  to  this  day,  in  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  Syria,  the 
marriage  of  blood  relatives  is  preferred.  As 
recently  as  1878,  Sir  Wilfred  and  Lady  Anne 
Blunt  made  a journey  from  “Tadmor  in  the  wil- 
derness” of  Northern  Syria, ^ to  Nejd,  in  Central 
Arabia,  to  secure  for  a young  Arab  attendant, 
whom  they  valued,  a wife  from  among  his  blood 
relatives,  the  Ibn  Arooks,  whom  he  had  never 
seen.  Their  story  of  this  adventure  shows  the 
same  essential  features  in  a courtship  and  mar- 
riage among  that  primitive  people  now  as  in  the 
days  of  Abraham  and  of  Jacob.  Sir  Wilfred 
abled  as  Eliezer  in  the  negotiation.  And  the 
attempt  was  made  on  the  part  of  the  parents  of 
the  bride  to  have  the  elder  sister  taken  instead 
of  the  younger.  A “professional  go-between” 
was  employed  by  the  parents  to  arrange  details. 
At  last  the  betrothal  contract  was  signed,  and  the 
younger  sister  consented  to  go  to  a far  country 
as  the  wife  of  her  stranger  cousin. 

We  know  that  among  the  ancient  Hebrews 

1 I Kings  9:18;  2 Chron.  8 : 4. 


32  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

marriage  with  relatives  was  preferred  ; ^ and  it 
is  an  established  facl  that  among  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  and  also  among  the  Assyrians,  the 
marriage  of  brothers  and  sisters,  and  even  of 
fathers  and  daughters,  was  an  approved  custom. 
A similar  state  of  things  is  known  to  have  existed 
amonof  the  Peruvians  in  the  Western  world. 
The  sweep  of  testimony  in  the  earlier  records 
of  the  human  race  is  opposed  to  the  underly- 
ing theory  on  which  the  claimed  necessity  of  the 
capture  of  brides  from  a foreign  people  or  tribe 
is  based. 

When,  in  the  East,  the  day  approaches  for  the 
wedding  of  two  persons  betrothed,  preparations 
are  made  for  festivities  in  the  homes  of  both  par- 
ties. Invitations  are  sent  out  in  advance,  by  the 
parents  on  both  sides,  to  their  kinsfolk  and 
friends,  to  come  to  the  feasts  which  are  provided 
in  both  homes.  The  marriage  proper  is  the 
bringing  of  the  bride  by  the  bridegroom  to  his 
own  home,  or  to  his  mother  s home, — as  his  home 
is  at  such  a time  ordinarily  spoken  of.  Thus  it 
is  that  the  Bible  record  says  that  after  Rebekah 

'■  Gen.  1 1 : 29-31  ; 

2 Sam.  13  : 10-13. 


12  : 10-13;  20  : 2-12;  24  : 2-4;  28  : i,  2; 


Beb'othals  ajid  IVeddin^s  in  the  East.  33 


was  betrothed  to  Isaac,  “ Isaac  brought  her  into 
his  mother  Sarah’s  tent,  and  took  Rebekah,  and 
she  became  his  wife.”^ 

This  looking  upon  a bride  as  belonging  to  the 
mother  of  the  bridegroom  is  a distinctive  feature 
of  the  family  life  of  the  primitive  East.  It  is 
frequently  referred  to  by  the  observers  of  Orien- 
tal customs.  Morier,  the  English  traveler,  re- 
ports the  Persian  envoy  as  saying  that  “ the 
king’s  mother  had  more  business  than  can  be 
described.  She  had  the  control  of  all  her  son’s 
harem,  which  might  consist  all  together  of  more 
than  a thousand  women  ; and  you  may  well  con- 
ceive the  trouble  which  they  would  give.”^ 

It  would  seem,  indeed,  to  be  in  view  of  this 
primitive  custom  in  the  East  that  such  emphasis 
is  laid,  in  the  first  book  of  the  Pentateuch,  upon 
the  primal  plan  of  separating  from  the  patri- 
archal home  each  new  couple  of  young  people. 
“Therefore  shall  a man  leave  his  father  and  his 
mother,  and  shall  cleave  unto  his  wife  : and  they 
shall  be  one  flesh.”®  It  is  not  that  therefore 
shall  a woman  leave  her  father  and  her  mother 
and  shall  cleave  unto  her  husband,  for  that  will 
^Gen.  24  : 67.  * See  Song  of  Songs  8 : 2.  ^Gen.  2 : 24. 

3 


34 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


be  secured  in  the  nature  of  the  case  ; but  it  is 
that,  contrary  to  the  custom  of  a patriarchal 
people,  the  man  who  marries  a wife  ought  to 
leave  his  old  home,  and  make  a new  home  with 
and  for  his  wife.  This  is  the  Bible  doctrine, 
and  this  also  is  the  custom,  away  from  the  East, 
under  the  influence  of  Bible  teachings  ; but  this 
is  not,  nor  was  it,  the  custom  in  the  patriarchal 
East. 

Customs  vary  in  different  regions  concerning 
wedding  festivities  and  the  invitations  to  them, 
as  well  as  concerning  betrothals.  But  quite 
generally  among  the  wealthier  classes  these  fes- 
tivities cover  a week  or  more.  It  was  so  in  the 
days  of  Jacob,  when  Laban  urged  his  son-in-law 
not  to  interrupt  that  week’s  rejoicings  merely 
because  he  had  been  given  the  wrong  woman 
for  a wife.'  And  “so  used  the  young  men  to 
do,”  in  Samson’s  time,  as  we  are  told  in  the  Bible 
record.^  So,  also,  are  the  young  men  and  their 
friends  accustomed  to  do  in  Egypt  and  Arabia 
and  Syria  to-day. 

In  some  cases  the  father  of  the  bridegroom 
sends  out  a number  of  his  friends  to  bear  invita- 


' Gen.  29  : 27. 


’ Judg.  14  : 10-12. 


35 


Betrothals  and  Weddings  iivthe  East. 


tions  to  those  whom  he  would  have  as  guests, 
giving  to  every  one  of  these  messengers  a new 
suit  of  clothing  for  the  occasion  ; and  at  the 
same  time  he  sends  a lamp  with  olive  oil  for  its 
filling  to  every  one  whom  he  invites  to  the  wed- 
ding festivities.  Similarly,  in  some  cases  the 
mother  of  the  bride  provides  new  garments  for 
the  women  messengers  by  whom  she  sends 
invitations  to  her  women  friends.  Sometimes, 
again,  the  invitations  are  sent  with  less  formality, 
and  without  any  such  outlay  for  new  garments 
and  lamps.  Invited  guests  send  gifts  to  the 
house  of  the  bridegroom  in  advance  of  their 
coming,  and  the  gifts  sent  to  or  with  the  bride 
are  made  as  prominent  as  possible  in  their 
display. 

An  examination  of  the  bridal  presents  at  the 
time  of  the  wedding  festivities,  with  a critical 
estimate  of  their  cash  value,  on  the  part  of  the 
invited  guests,  is,  indeed,  quite  as  prominent  a 
feature  of  such  an  occasion  in  the  East  as  in  the 
West.  The  bride  herself  is  loaded  with  all  the 
gold  and  silver  and  precious  stones  she  possesses  ; 
and  there  is  a special  reason  for  this  as  apart 
from  any  possible  question  of  a woman’s  innate 


36  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

love  for  finer)'.  There  is  a utilitarian  aspect  of 
it  that  is  worthy  of  note. 

Oriental  law  and  Oriental  custom  give  to 
a woman  the  undisputed  proprietorship  of  her 
purely  personal  property,  such  as  her  money,  her 
jewelry,  and  her  wearing  apparel  ; but  beyond 
this  her  property  rights  are  at  the  best  a matter 
of  question.  This  facd  makes  it  for  a woman’s 
interest  to  be  her  own  banker,  and  to  attach  her 
worldly  treasures  to  her  person. 

Miss  Whately,  at  Cairo,  while  pointing  to  the 
little  girls  of  her  school  who  were  showily 
adorned  with  strings  of  coins  and  ornaments  of 
silver  and  gold,  said  to  me  on  this  point:  “Any 
woman  who  is  a wife  may  by  Muhammadan  law 
be  divorced  and  put  away  by  her  husband  at 
any  hour.  He  has  but  to  speak  the  word  and 
she  must  leave  him.  Then  she  must  go  out 
from  her  home  to  get  on  by  herself  as  best  she 
can.  But  her  husband  cannot  take  from  her  any- 
thing that  she  has  upon  her  person.  So  you 
see  those  rings  and  necklaces  may  come  to  be 
all-important  to  these  girls  in  their  hour  of  need. 
I can  hardly,  therefore,  have  it  in  my  heart  to 
insist  that  they  shall  strip  themselves  of  their 


Betrothals  and  Weddings  in  the  East.  37 


only  assured  property  in  the  eye  of  Egyptian 
law.” 

The  divorcing  word  in  Turkey  is  “ Bosh.” 
American  husbands,  I fear,  sometimes  speak  that 
word  to  their  wives  without  realizing  its  Oriental 
origin  and  potency.  It  was  to  limit  this  power 
of  the  primitive  Oriental  husbands  to  divorce 
their  wives  by  a spoken  word,  that  the  Mosaic 
law  required  the  husband  to  give  a written  bill 
of  divorcement  when  from  any  cause  he  would 
put  away  his  wife.^  The  difficulty  of  enforcing 
even  the  Mosaic  requirements,  so  far,  on  an 
Oriental  people,  is  shown  in  the  prevalent  cus- 
toms of  divorce  among  the  Arabs  of  to-day. 

A divorced  wife  in  the  East  is  entitled  by 
common  law  to  all  her  wearing  apparel,  as 
well  as  to  any  portion  of  her  dower  which  may 
have  been  retained  by  her  husband  at  the  time 
of  her  betrothal ; but  she  is  obviously  at  a 
disadvantage  in  pressing  such  a claim  as  this, 
whereas  there  can  be  no  question  concerning 
that  which  is  actually  upon  her  person.  Hence 
it  is  that  so  much  interest  attaches  to  the  costli- 
ness of  a bride’s  personal  adorning  in  the  East, 

^ Deut.  24  ; I ; Matt.  5 : 31, 32  ; 19:3-11. 


38  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

and  that  its  market  value  indicates  what  she  by 
herself  may  fairly  be  said  to  be  “worth,”  And 
this  would  seem  to  account  for  the  wearing  of 
coins  and  of  gold  and  silver  ornaments  so  gene- 
rally by  women  in  the  East, — even  among  the 
poorer  classes  ; as  also  for  the  custom  of  giving 
presents  to  a bride  in  the  form  of  gold  and  sil- 
ver and  jewelry,  which  has  its  survival  in  the 
West  as  well  as  in  the  East. 

The  women  guests  at  a wedding,  in  many 
parts  of  the  East,  deck  themselves  with  all  their 
jewels  and  other  personal  adornings,  not  so  much 
with  a view  to  the  esthetic  advantage  of  these  to 
the  wearer,  as  with  a purpose  of  showing  them 
off  in  their  purely  financial  aspect. 

In  illustration  of  this.  Lady  Burton,  wife  and 
biographer  of  the  famoiis  English  traveler,  gives 
her  observations  at  a “splendid  Eastern  wedding” 
in  high  life  in  Damascus.  “ It  lasted  five  days 
and  five  nights,”  she  says,  “ the  men  celebrating 
it  at  one  house  and  the  women  in  another.  . . . 
It  was  a grand  sight.  . . . The  dresses  were  won- 
derful in  richness  and  gaudiness  : diamonds 

blazed  everywhere  ; but  there  was  one  very  re- 
markable usage  which  took  my  fancy.  The  best 


Betrothals  and  Weddings  in  the  East.  39 


women  dressed  in  a plain  cashmere  robe  of 
neglige  shape,  and  wore  no  ornaments,  but  loaded 
all  their  riches  on  one  or  two  of  their  slaves,  as 
if  to  say,  in  school-girls’  parlance,  ‘ Now,  girls  ! 
if  you  want  to  see  my  things,  there  they  are. 
I have  them,  but  it  is  too  great  a bore  to  carry 
them  myself;  and  you  can  inspect  and  turn  about 
Mirjanah  and  Hassunah  [the  two  slave  girls]  as 
much  as  you  like.’  ” 

It  would  seem  to  be  a survival  of  this  primitive 
custom  of  proving  a woman’s  worth  by  an  inven- 
tory of  her  personal  jewelry,  that  prompts  the 
modern  newsmonger  to  cable  across  the  Atlantic 
the  cash  value  of  the  precious  stones  borne  upon 
the  person  of  the  wife  of  an  American  million- 
aire on  her  appearance  at  the  Queen’s  drawing- 
room. 

The  bride’s  trousseau  is  also  on  exhibition  at 
many  an  Eastern  wedding,  but  in  a more  formal 
and  elaborate  manner  than  in  our  Western 
world.  The  bride  puts  on  every  one  of  her  cos- 
tumes in  its  order,  and  is  presented  in  it  to  her 
guests,  and  in  some  cases  to  her  husband  also, 
who  is  present  at  this  ceremony,  until  she  has 
gone  through  her  entire  outfit.  This  custom 


40 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


finds  frequent  illustration  in  the  Arabian  Nights, 
where  a description  of  a marriage  includes  the 
successive  presentation  of  the  bride  to  her  hus- 
band in  her  different  robes  of  beauty.  Thus  in 
the  tale  of  Noor  al  Deen  Alee  and  his  Son,  the 
bride  is  presented  to  her  guests,  while  the  bride- 
groom is  present,  in  her  seven  different  dresses 
in  succession,  comment  being  made  on  every 
dress  by  itself  by  the  fair  narrator,  Shahrazad. 

An  observant  German  traveler  in  Tunis,  de- 
scribing the  customs  among  the  Jews  of  that 
region,  on  the  chief  dressing-day  of  the  wedding 
ceremonies,  says:  “There  exists  a custom  that 
on  this  day  all  brides  married  the  same  year  take 
their  whole  wardrobe  to  the  newly  married  lady, 
and  change  their  toilet  from  hour  to  hour  : no 
easy  task,  considering  the  great  number  of  their 
garments,  and  their  corpulence  and  awkward- 
ness. Nevertheless,  vanity  overcomes  the  diffi- 
culty.” 

Great  variety  is  shown  in  the  form  and  style 
and  nature  of  the  gold  and  silver  and  precious 
stone  adornings  of  a bride,  in  different  parts  of 
the  East ; yet  with  all  the  variations  there  are  cer- 
tain bridal  ornaments  which  are  found  through- 


Betrothals  and  Weddings  in  the  East.  41 


out  the  East.  Ear-rings,  and  nose-rings,  and  nose- 
pins,  and  anklets,  and  necklaces,  and  brooches, 
and  head-bands,  and  hair  chains,  and  girdles, 
and  other  ornaments,  are  common,  but  not  uni- 
versal. Diamond  clusters  in  star  form,  fastened 
upon  the  forehead,  upon  the  chin,  and  upon 
either  cheek,  are  a costly  feature  of  a bride’s 
exhibit  in  Damascus  and  in  Constantinople,  if 
not  also  elsewhere.  But  a ring  or  a bracelet  of 
some  kind,  together  with  a diadem  or  crown,  is 
wellnigh  universal  as  a part  of  a bride’s  adorn- 
ings.  The  ring,  or  bracelet,  seems  to  be  the 
token  of  a covenant  between  the  husband  and 
the  wife,  and  the  crown  obviously  symbolizes  the 
queenliness  of  woman  and  the  royalty  of  wife- 
hood. 

Both  these  tokens  are  of  ver^^  early  origin  and 
of  widespread  and  general  use  in  conjunction 
with  wedding  ceremonies.  It  is  obviously  in 
view  of  these  common  adornings  of  the  Oriental 
bride  that,  when  the  Lord  speaks  through  the 
prophet  Ezekiel  to  Israel  as  his  betrothed  wife,  he 
says  : “I  clothed  thee  also  with  broidered  work, 
and  shod  thee  with  sealskin,  and  I girded  thee 
about  with  fine  linen,  and  covered  thee  with  silk. 


42 


Studies  m Oriental  Social  Life. 


I decked  thee  also  with  ornaments,  and  I put 
bracelets  upon  thy  hands,  and  a chain  on  thy 
neck.  And  I put  a ring  upon  [or  in]  thy  nose, 
and  earrings  in  thine  ears,  and  a beautiful  crown 
upon  thine  head.  Thus  wast  thou  decked  with 
gold  and  silver ; and  thy  raiment  was  of  fine 
linen,  and  silk,  and  broidered  work.”^ 

Again  when  the  Lord  by  Ezekiel  rebukes 
Samaria  and  Jerusalem,  under  the  names  of  Oho- 
lah  and  Oholibah,  for  their  breach  of  espousals, 
he  refers  to  their  mock  marriages,  when  there 
came  “drunkards  from  the  wilderness”  who  “put 
bracelets  upon  the  hands  of  them  twain,  and 
beautiful  crowns  [or,  crowns  of  glory]  upon  their 
heads.”  ^ 

There  is  sentiment  also  underlying  the  uni- 
versal use  of  the  bridal  veil  in  connedlion  with 
the  marriage  ceremony  in  the  East.  This  is 
clearly  a custom  not  confined  to  those  peoples 
among  whom  the  women  always  go  veiled,  for 
it,  or  its  equivalent  in  a closed  box  or  litter,  is 
equally  prominent  among  other  Oriental  peoples. 
A bride  is  behind  a veil  when  her  husband  comes 

* Ezek.  i6  : 10-13. 

Ezek.  23  : 42.  Comp.  Jer.  13  : 18 ; Isa.  62  : 3. 


Betrothals  and  Weddings  in  the  East.  43 


to  claim  her,  and  only  by  marriage  is  that  veil 
lifted  to  him.  Rebekah  seems  to  have  had  no 
thought  of  veiling  her  face  against  the  stranger 
Eliezer,  or  against  the  passers  by  as  she  jour- 
neyed southward  with  him  through  Canaan,  after 
her  betrothal  to  his  master.  But  when  they  drew 
near  the  Negeb  below  Hebron,  and  she  was  told 
that  Isaac  was  coming  toward  them,  then  at  once 
“she  took  her  veil  and  covered  herself.”^ 

In  many  parts  of  the  East  the  specific  celebra- 
tion of  the  marriage  rite  is  called  to-day  “the 
lifting  of  the  veil,”  or  “the  uncovering  of  the 
face,” — a primitive  custom  which  has  its  survival 
here  in  the  West  in  the  bridegroom’s  lifting  the 
veil  of  his  bride  at  the  conclusion  of  the  marriage 
service  and  giving  to  her  a husband’s  kiss.  And 
the  very  term  “ nuptial,”  or  “nuptials,”  means 
the  “veiling”  of  the  bride  to  receive  her  hus- 
band. To  one  who  recognizes  the  prevailing 
power  of  sentiment  in  the  world’s  history  and 
in  the  manners  and  customs  of  mankind,  the 
significance  of  the  bridal  veil  is  as  impressive  as 
it  is  simple  and  natural  ; but  the  scholar  who 
has  his  hypothetical  dogma  to  prove,  will  perhaps 
* Gen.  24  : 65. 


44  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

see  in  the  bridal  veil  only  an  indication  that  in 
prehistoric  days  wives  were  generally  caught 
wild  by  throwing  a bag  over  their  heads. 

The  week  of  the  wedding,  in  the  East,  is  a week 
of  processions  as  well  as  of  feasting.  In  some 
cases  the  bride,  accompanied  by  her  friends,  goes 
in  procession  to  the  public  bath  several  days  in 
succession,  and  after  this  she  is  taken  with  much 
show  and  demonstration  to  the  home  of  the 
bridegroom  or  of  his  mother.  The  bridegroom 
also  has  his  special  display  in  this  line  when 
he  goes  to  receive  his  bride  or  to  join  her  in  his 
own  home. 

The  gifts  for  the  bride,  including  her  trousseau, 
are  sometimes  borne  in  procession  to  her  home 
in  advance  of  her  going  to  the  home  of  her  hus- 
band ; or  they  are  borne  before  her  on  that 
occasion.  In  all  cases,  as  much  of  a display  as  is 
practicable  is  made  of  these  gifts.  A train  of 
camels,  with  showy  trappings  and  ornamented 
canopies,  is  sometimes  employed  for  the  trans- 
portation of  these  bridal  presents.  Prominent 
amone  these  eifts  is  a bright -colored  cradle, 
which  is  often  borne  aloft  in  full  display  on  the 
back  of  a camel. 


Betrothals  and  IVeddmgs  in  the  East.  45 


In  the  large  cities,  like  Cairo,  Constantinople, 
Damascus,  and  Jerusalem,  the  rejoicings  which 
accompany  these  wedding  processions  are  a 
prominent  feature  of  the  social  life  of  to-day  as 
in  olden  time.  And  this  facd  gives  point  to  the 
prophet’s  warning  from  the  Lord,  as  a sentence 
of  doom  ; “Then  will  I cause  to  cease  from  the 
cities  of  Judah,  and  from  the  streets  of  Jerusalem, 
the  voice  of  mirth  and  the  voice  of  gladness,  the 
voice  of  the  brideorroom  and  the  voice  of  the 

o 

bride  : for  the  land  shall  become  a waste.” ^ 

Just  here,  an  illustration  of  the  wedding  pro- 
cessions, as  I saw  them  in  the  East,  may  prove 
their  most  helpful  description. 

It  was  at  Castle  Nakhl,  an  Egyptian  fortress 
in  the  Arabian  Desert,  that  I witnessed  these 
processions.  Castle  Nakhl  is  a low-walled  stone 
fortress,  with  a mud  village  adjoining  it,  on  a 
flint-strewn  chalky  plain,  at  the  point  where  the 
great  Hajj  route,  or  pilgrim  way  from  Cairo  to 
Meccah,  crosses  the  main  route  between  Mt. 
Sinai  and  Hebron.  It  is  an  Egyptian  military 
station.  At  the  time  I was  there,  its  com- 
mandant, or  “ governor,”  was  an  old  Egyptian 
^ Jer.  7 : 34;  16  ; 9 ; 25  : 10. 


46  Studies  in  Oric7ital  Social  Life. 

soldier,  who  was  afterwards  strongly  suspected 
of  complicity  in  the  murder,  on  the  desert  near 
Suez,  of  Professor  E.  H.  Palmer  of  Cambridge 
University,  the  famous  explorer,  and  author  of 
the  work  on  the  Desert  of  the  Exodus. 

The  old  governor’s  son,  who  lived  in  Egypt, 
had  come  down  from  his  Delta  home  to  take 
back  with  him  a bride  to  whom  he  had  been  long 
betrothed,  from  one  of  the  families  living  within 
the  fortress  walls.  This  was  “ the  social  event 
of  the  season”  at  Castle  Nakhl  ; and  we  who 
were  encamped  near  the  castle  for  a Sunday’s 
rest,  on  our  way  from  Sinai  to  Hebron,  had  a rare 
opportunity  of  witnessing  the  wedding  proces- 
sions outside  of  the  fortress  walls,  without  any 
of  the  hindrances  to  their  observing  to  which  we 
should  have-been  liable  in  the  narrow  city  streets. 

So  strong  is  the  power  of  Oriental  custom  in  a 
matter  like  this,  that  even  where  the  bride  and 
bridegroom  were  already,  as  in  this  instance, 
within  the  walls  of  the  same  home,  they  could 
not  dispense  with  at  least  one  procession  for  each 
party  as  preliminary  to,  or  as  an  essential  part 
of,  the  marriage  ceremony.  Therefore,  by  a 
patent  ficdion,  the  bride  must  leave  her  home  and 


Betrothals  and  Weddings  in  the  East.  47 


proceed  by  a roundabout  way  to  her  husband’s 
home — from  which  she  had  started.  Similarly 
the  husband  must  go  in  a roundabout  way  to 
receive  his  bride,  finding  her  at  last  at  the  point 
from  which  he  had  set  out. 

It  was  on  Saturday  that  we  reached  the  vicinity 
of  Castle  Nakhl.  The  wedding  festivities  were 
already  in  progress.  There  was  “music  and 
dancinof  ’’  to  be  heard  from  a distance — as  at  the 
return  of  the  prodigal  son.^  The  dancing  as  well 
as  the  music  could  be  “ heard  ; ” for  dancing 
is  a vigorous  business  in  the  East,  especially  the 
dancing  of  men,  who,  of  course,  always  dance  by 
themselves.  And  the  music  was  of  that  weird 
and  plaintive  character  which  is  never  heard 
except  in  the  East,  and  which  once  heard  can 
never  be  forgotten.  The  sound  of  the  rejoicings 
came  over  the  desert  into  our  tents  by  night, 
when  the  fortress  itself  was  shrouded  in  darkness. 

The  governor  of  the  castle  had  “ made  a mar- 
riage feast  for  his  son.”^  Besides  providing  sheep 
and  pigeons  in  abundance,  he  had  generously 
sacrificed  a young  dromedary  ; that  is,  he  had 
had  a young  dromedary  slaughtered  for  its  flesh, 
*Luke  15  : 25.  ^Matt.  22  : 2. 


48  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

and  the  slaying  of  an  animal  for  food  is  called 
sacrificing  to  God  among  Orientals,  its  blood 
being  poured  out  before  God,^  and  its  flesh  being 
eaten  by  those  who  are  in  covenant  with  God. 

Animal  food  is  a rarity  in  the  desert,  and  the 
sacrificing  of  a young  dromedary  is  a noteworthy 
event  there.  The  Arabs  of  Nakhl  were  there- 
fore doubly  joyous  at  this  wedding  feast.  “ Can 
ye  make  the  sons  of  the  bride-chamber  [the 
sharers  in  the  wedding  festivities]  fast,  while  the 
bridegroom  is  with  them  [supplying  dromedary 
meat  without  cost]  ? But  the  days  will  come  ; 
and  when  the  bridegroom  shall  be  taken  away 
from  them  [going  back  to  his  Delta  home],  then 
shall  they  fast  in  those  days  [in  their  dreary 
desert  abode].” ^ So  now  they  feasted  and  re- 
joiced. Everybody  at  Castle  Nakhl,  including 
“the  poor,  the  maimed,  the  lame,  the  blind,” ^ 
of  its  adjoining  mud  village,  had  a share  of  boiled 
dromedary  at  this  wedding  feast.  Nor  were  the 
strangers^ — “Christian  dogs  though  they  were 

>Lev.  17  ; 3-5,  13,  14. 

* Luke  5 ; 34.  35  ; comp.  Matt.  9:15;  Mark  2:19,  20. 

“ Luke  14  ; 13. 

^Comp.  Exod.  20  : 10  ; Lev.  24  ; 22;  Deut.  10  : 17,  18. 

“Matt.  25  : 31-40. 


Betrothals  and  Weddings  in  the  East.  49 


— who  were  in  the  tents  outside  the  castle  gates 
forgotten  in  the  distribution. 

It  was  on  Sunday  afternoon  that  the  bridal 
procession  set  out  from  the  fortress  gates.  Sun- 
day is  a favorite  day  with  Muhammadans  for  the 
beginning  of  an  enterprise.  They  say  that  God 
began  to  make  the  world  on  Sunday,  and  that 
that  day  is  a good  day  for  any  new  start.  Sun- 
day and  Thursday  are,  indeed,  the  two  days  of 
the  week  on  which  the  ceremonies  immediately 
previous  to  the  marriage  night  are  performed 
amongr  Muhammadans. 

First  there  came  a company  of  Egyptian  sol- 
diers, of  the  governor’s  guard,  with  their  noisy 
music  of  metal-framed  drums  and  ear-piercing 
clarionets.  Then  followed  a number  of  women, 
two  by  two,  all  of  them  shrouded  with  the  sheet- 
like mantles,  and  the  face-veils  that  leave  only 
the  eyes  and  forehead  e.xposed,  which  are  the 
street  dress  of  Egyptian  women  of  the  better 
class,  the  married  women  wearing  black  and  the 
maidens  white. 

Erom  time  to  time,  in  the  intervals  of  the  instru- 
mental music,  these  women  sounded  those  peculiar 
“shrill  quavering  cries  of  joy,  called  zugaret," 

4 


50  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

which  are  to  be  heard  througrhout  the  East  on 
occasions  of  special  rejoicing,  and  which  can  be 
produced  only  by  those  who  were  trained  to 
them  from  early  childhood.  These  cries  of  joy, 
like  the  cries  of  mourning,  in  the  East,  are  prob- 
ably the  same  as  those  which  sounded  in  the  ears 
of  Solomon  and  of  Moses  and  of  Joseph,  in  their 
day,  on  similar  occasions  of  joy  or  of  sorrow. 
Children  in  their  gayest  dresses  followed  these 
women  in  the  procession.  Arab  children  can 
afford  to  wear  good  dresses  at  a Sunday  wed- 
ding, for  they  wear  nothing  whatever  at  ordinary 
times. 

After  this  advance  escort  came  the  bride  her- 
self. She  was  veiled,  but  not,  like  the  other 
women,  with  a veil  that  left  her  eyes  exposed. 
A red  cashmere  shawl  or  mantle  covered  her 
from  head  to  foot.  It  was  thrown  on  above  the 
bridal  crown  that  surmounted  her  head,  and  de- 
scended to  the  ground.  Being  fitted  to  its  pur- 
pose, instead  of  hanging  in  folds,  it  gave  her 
somewhat  the  appearance  of  a scarlet  ten-pin, 
with  a shawl  pattern  ornamental  border  at  top 
and  bottom.  Outside  of  the  shawl,  where  it 
covered  the  bridal  crown,  there  sparkled  a jew- 


Betrothals  and  Weddings  in  the  East.  5 1 


eled  band  or  circlet,  and  above  all  was  a shield- 
shaped plate  or  cap  of  gold, — for  there  must  be 
jewels  in  sight  on  a veiled  bride,  as  well  as  those 
which  are  covered  up.  These  more  expensive 
bridal  ornaments  are  sometimes  hired,  in  the 
East,  by  families  too  poor  to  own  them.  Here 
seems  to  be  the  origin  of  hiring  wedding  presents 
for  display,  in  ambitious  homes  of  the  W est. 

Of  course,  the  closely  enveloped  bride  could 
not  see  to  walk  ; therefore  she  was  supported  on 
either  hand  by  a woman  friend,  shrouded  and 
veiled  after  the  common  fashion.  As  midday 
on  the  desert  was  fearfully  hot,  the  bride  must 
have  sweltered  in  her  cashmere  prison-house. 
In  some  cases,  at  such  a time,  a woman  attend- 
ant walks  backward,  in  advance  of  the  bride, 
fanning  her  vigorously  ; but  there  was  no  such 
mitigating  of  her  misery  in  this  instance.  Above 
the  heads  of  the  bride  and  her  supporters  was  a 
white  cotton  rectangular  canopy,  with  showy 
streamers  at  its  four  corners,  upborne  by  poles 
in  the  hands  of  gayly  dressed  lads. 

The  procession  moved  slowly.  It  would  do 
so  under  any  circumstances  ; but  in  this  instance 
it  would  gain  time  by  losing  it,  for  it  was  out 


52  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

only  to  show  itself  off.  At  every  few  rods  of 
the  march  the  procession  would  halt,  and  the 
soldiers  in  the  lead  would  form  in  two  lines  over 
against  each  other,  facing  inward,  at,  say,  five  to 
seven  yards  apart.  Then  one  of  the  soldiers 
would  execute  a dance  up  and  down  between 
these  opened  lines,  and  beyond  them,  brandish- 
ing a sword  meanwhile,  or  discharging  a musket 
into  the  air  or  into  the  ground,  to  add  to  the 
impressiveness  of  his  movements. 

The  commander  of  the  military  escort  led 
off  in  this  dancing.  He  was  richly  dressed  in 
pidluresque  Arab  costume,  with  gold  and  silver 
embroidery  in  profusion  on  a Damascus  jacket 
of  green  velvet,  worn  above  his  flowing  robes. 
He  was  in  dead  earnest  in  his  dancing,  as  was 
David  when  he  “danced  before  the  Lord  with 
all  his  might,”  and  went  “leaping  and  dancing” 
in  the  procession  which  accompanied  the  ark  of 
God  to  Jerusalem  from  the  house  of  Obed-Edom.^ 

Thus  movinij  and  haltinm  with  a fresh  dancer 
at  every  halt,  and  with  the  music  or  cries  of  rejoic- 
ing kept  up  unceasingly,  the  bridal  procession 
made  a circuitous  route  across  the  chalky  desert, 

* 2 Sam.  6 : 12-16;  i Chron.  15  : 25-29. 


Betrothals  and  Weddings  in  the  East.  53 


under  the  glaring  sun,  for  an  hour  or  more,  and 
then  wound  its  way  back  again  to  the  castle  en- 
trance, as  though  it  had  really  been  bringing  the 
bride  from  a distance  to  her  bridegroom’s  home. 

It  was  a little  before  sundown  that  the  bridal 
procession  re-entered  the  fortress  gates.  We 
could  not  follow  it  thither ; but  according  to 
Oriental  custom  the  bridegroom  would  receive 
his  bride  at  such  a time,  heavily  enwrapped  as 
she  was,  as  she  reached  the  threshold  of  his 
house,  and  lift  her  over  it,  and  then  escort  her 
to  the  door  of  the  women’s  apartments,  to  his 
mother’s  quarters,  there  to  leave  her  while  he 
returned  for  a time  to  his  friends.  The  festivi- 
ties would  still  continue  in  separate  rooms ; 
“ the  voice  of  the  bride  ” being  thus  distin- 
guished from  “the  voice  of  the  bridegroom,”  as 
separate  rejoicings.^ 

We  were  told  that  another  procession,  accom- 
panying the  bridegroom  on  his  way  to  receive 
his  bride,  would  move  out  later  in  the  evening, 
and  we  were  on  the  watch  for  that  for  several 
hours.  But  as,  again  and  again,  we  looked 
toward  the  castle,  we  saw  no  sign  of  movement 

* Comp.  Gen.  24  ; 67  ; Jer.  7 : 34 ; 16:9;  25:10;  33  : 10,  1 1. 


54 


Studies  ill  Oriental  Social  Life. 


there.  Sounds  of  rejoicing  were  heard  from 
within,  but  the  entrance  way  was  seemingly 
closed  for  the  night,  and  after  a while  we  con- 
cluded that  as  the  bridegroom  was  already  in 
the  castle  with  his  bride  he  would  know  enough 
to  stay  there,  so  we  went  quietly  to  bed  in  our 
tents.  But  “ at  midnight  there  was  a cr}'  made. 
Behold  the  bridegroom  cometh  ; go  ye  out  to 
meet  him!”^  That  was  literally  the  substance 
of  our  dragoman’s  call  to  us  ; and  we  sprang  up 
to  see  the  sight,  even  though  we  had  no  lamps 
to  fill  and  carry.  Hurrying  from  our  tents  we 
saw  the  procession  with  its  flaming  torches  filing 
out  from  the  castle  gates. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  bridal  procession,  a mili- 
tary escort  with  a band  of  noisy  musicians  led 
the  way,  having  its  occasional  halts  for  dancing 
and  the  discharge  of  firearms.  One  man,  how- 
ever, in  this  case,  did  all  the  dancing  both  going 
and  returning.  He  was  a Bed'wy,  very  graceful 
in  his  movements  and  in  the  use  of  his  sword, 
which  he  brandished  startlingly  in  the  faces  of 
those  about  him  while  dancing  up  and  down  the 
parallel  lines  ; or  which  again  he  balanced  by 
* Matt.  25  : 6. 


Betrothals  and  IVeddin^s  in  the  East.  55 


hilt  and  by  point,  now  back  of  his  bowed  head, 
and  now  on  one  shoulder  or  the  other,  while 
moving  along  with  a limping  hitch,  first  on  one 
leg  and  then  on  the  other,  keeping  time  always 
with  the  rude  Arab  music. 

The  bridegroom,  gayly  attired  in  Egyptian 
costume,  was  supported,  like  the  bride,  by  two 
friends,  but  not  under  a canopy.  Veiled  women, 
probably  his  relatives,  followed  the  procession, 
and  sounded  their  zugdret  cries  along  the  way. 
Torch-bearers  were  at  both  front  and  rear.  Their 
flaring  light,  the  showy  and  varied  costumes,  the 
swarthy  faces,  the  rolling  desert,  the  castle  back- 
ground, the  starry  skies,  combined  to  make  a 
scene  both  pidluresque  and  weird ; and  the 
strange  wild  music  of  instruments  and  voices, 
sounding  out  on  the  night  air,  aided  in  render- 
ing the  scene  a far  more  impressive  one  than 
the  bridal  procession  of  the  afternoon. 

Strangers  as  we  were,  we  feared  that  we  might 
be  deemed  intruders  at  such  a time  if  we  ven- 
tured too  near,  therefore  we  modestly  took  the 
lowest  place  beyond  the  farthest  limit  of  the  noisy 
gathering,  with  the  rabble  that  followed  it.  Rut 
we  were  recognized  by  some  member  of  the 


56  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

governor’s  household,  as  we  had  made  a formal 
call  on  him,  soon  after  our  arrival,  and  we  were 
promptly  bidden  to  come  up  higher.  On  this 
summons  a way  was  opened  for  us,  right  and 
left,  through  the  attendant  crowd,  and  we  were 
conducted  close  to  the  bridegroom’s  immediate 
party,  having  honor,  in  consequence,  with  those 
who  had  before  viewed  us  with  suspicion.^ 

In  the  din  of  that  hour,  and  amid  the  loud 
praises  of  the  honored  bridegroom,  we  had  a new 
sense  of  the  force  of  that  figure  in  the  Apocalypse 
of  the  coming  of  the  royal  Bridegroom  to  claim 
his  long-betrothed  bride:  “And  I heard  as  it 
were  the  voice  of  a great  multitude,  and  as  the 
voice  of  many  waters,  and  as  the  voice  of  mighty 
thunders,  saying,  Hallelujah  [and  our  Hallelu- 
jah is  merely  the  Western  method  of  sounding 
the  Eastern  zugdret\  ; for  the  Lord  our  God,  the 
Almighty,  reigneth.  Let  us  rejoice  and  be  ex- 
ceeding glad,  and  let  us  give  the  glory  unto 
him  : for  the  marriage  of  the  Lamb  is  come,  and 
his  wife  hath  made  herself  ready.  . . . Blessed 
are  they  which  are  bidden  to  the  marriage  supper 
of  the  Lamb.”^ 

•Luke  14  : 7-1 1 • "Rev.  19:6-9. 


i 


Betrothals  and  Weddings  in  the  East.  5 7 


Our  bridegroom  was  now  supposed  to  be  on 
his  way  to  the  mosk  for  prayers,  in  accordance 
with  Muhammadan  custom  ; but  as  there  is  no 
separate  mosk  at  Castle  Nakhl  he  was  taken  to 
a muqam,  or  the  tomb  of  a saint  or  wely,  which 
was  in  a Muhammadan  cemetery  near  by.  This 
was  one  of  the  stuccoed  and  whitened  structures, 
the  “whited  sepulchres,”^  which  are  to  be  found 
more  or  less  generally  throughout  the  East  as 
objects  of  popular  veneration.  After  a very  brief 
season  of  prayer  within  the  opened  doors  of  this 
lighted  tomb,  the  bridegroom  was  escorted  back 
to  the  fortress  by  a more  circuitous  route  and 
more  slowly  than  he  had  come, — it  being  a point 
of  Muhammadan  etiquette  for  a bridegroom  to 
seem  more  in  haste  to  reach  the  place  of  prayer 
than  the  place  where  he  is  to  meet  his  bride. 
This  may  suggest  to  some  ingenious  scientist 
the  theory  that  there  was  a primeval  leap-year 
period  when  women  dragged  reluCtant  husbands 
to  the  homes  prearranged  for  them.  And  he 
may  believe  it  who  will. 

The  music  and  dancing  of  the  bridegroom’s 
party  were  kept  up  until  the  bridegroom  reached 

^ Matt.  23  : 27,  29. 


58 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


the  castle.  Then  “they  that  were  ready  went  in 
with  him  to  the  marriage  feast : and  the  door 
was  shutd  leaving  us  in  “the  outer  darkness”^ 
of  the  desert  night. 

According  to  Oriental  custom,  it  is  immediately 
after  his  return  from  prayer  that  the  bridegroom 
is  escorted  to  the  door  of  his  bride’s  apartments, 
on  entering  which  he  is  permitted  to  lift  the  veil 
of  her  who  became  his  wife  by  betrothal.  It  is 
perhaps  the  first  time  that  either  has  seen  the 
other’s  face.  All  the  possibilities  of  a lifetime 
center  then  in  a single  look.  One  glimpse  will 
show  whether  it  is  dull-eyed  Leah  or  beautiful 
and  well-favored  Rachel  whom  the  veil  has 
covered,^  and  whether  he  who  lifts  it  is  one  to 
win  or  to  repel  a true  woman’s  love.  Bitter  dis- 
appointments, as  well  as  unanticipated  satisfac- 
tions are  among  the  recorded  surprises  of  these 
Oriental  bridal  unveilings.  Instances  are  known, 
in  the  far  East  at  least,  of  a bridegroom’s  looking 
with  horror  at  such  a moment  into  the  face  of 
a leper  bride.  And  on  the  other  hand,  bright 
examples  of  happiness  in  wedded  life  can  be 
pointed  to  which  had  their  start  in  loving  glances 
‘Matt.  25  ; 10.  ^ Matt.  22  : 13.  ®Gen.  29  : 16-25. 


Betrothals  and  Weddings  in  the  East.  59 


first  exchanged  when  an  Oriental  bridegroom 
uncovered  the  face  of  his  blushing  bride. 

For  example,  of  the  Hindoo  women  betrothed 
to  their  husbands  in  infancy,  and  first  seen  by 
those  husbands  when  claimed  in  their  marriage, 
Mrs.  Leonowens  says  : “ Tenderness  and  self- 
devotion  . . . are  the  chief  characteristics  of  the 
pure  Hindoo  woman.  Her  love  for  her  offspring 
amounts  to  a passion,  and  she  is  rarely  known 
to  speak  hastily,  much  less  to  strike  or  ill-use  her 
child.  Her  devotion  as  a wife  has  no  parallel  in 
the  history  of  the  world.”  And  Sir  Monier 
Monier-Williams  declares  that  “in  no  country  of 
the  world  has  married  life  been  so  universally 
honored”  as  in  India. 

If,  indeed,  the  Oriental  bridegroom  is  satisfied 
with  his  bride,  when  her  veil  has  been  lifted,  he 
goes  to  the  outer  door  of  her  room  and  announces 
his  hearty  ratification  of  the  match  that  has  been 
made  for  him  by  his  representatives.  This  an- 
nouncement is  at  once  taken  up  by  the  women 
who  are  waiting  outside,  and  their  cries  of  joy 
send  the  knowledge  of  it  to  watchful  listeners 
far  and  near.  Among  those  whose  hearts  are 
thrilled  with  gladness  by  the  welcome  intelli- 


6o 


Si2idies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

gence  that  the  bridegroom  is  made  happy  in  the 
possession  of  his  bride,  no  one  can  be  more 
keenly  grateful  for  the  announcement  than  “ the 
friend  of  the  bridegroom  ” who  has  conducted 
the  negotiations  which  led  to  this  event.  Then, 
and  not  till  then,  can  he  be  sure  that  he  has 
planned  wisely  and  well,  and  that  his  principal 
is  made  happy  through  his  efforts  in  his  behalf 
Herein  is  an  explanation  of  a passage  in  the 
New  Testament  which  has  lacked  explanation 
from  commentators.  When  John  the  Baptist 
was  told  that  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  whom  he  had 
baptized,  and  so  ushered  into  the  ministr)^  was 
now  himself  a recognized  teacher,  and  that  the 
multitudes  were  Hocking  to  him,  even  to  the 
eclipsing  of  John’s  popularity  and  prominence, 
the  record  stands,  that  “John  answered  and  said  : 
. . . Ye  yourselves  bear  me  witness,  that  I said, 
I am  not  the  Christ,  but,  that  I am  sent  before 
him.  He  that  hath  the  bride  is  the  bridegroom  ; 
but  the  friend  of  the  bridegroom,  which  standeth 
[outside]  and  heareth  him  [expressing  his  satis- 
faction with  the  union  arranged  for],  rejoiceth 
greatly  because  of  the  bridegroom’s  voice  [of 
approval]  : this  my  joy  therefore  [as  the  friend 


Betrothals  and  Weddings  in  the  East.  6i 


of  the  bridegroom  Christ]  is  fulfilled  [in  his 
union  with  his  bride  the  Church].  He  must 
increase,  but  I must  decrease.”^  The  friend  of 
the  bridegroom  has  no  longer  a mission  when 
the  bridegroom’s  true  mission  is  fairly  entered 
upon.  John’s  work  was  done  when  the  work  of 
Jesus  was  begun. 

These  marriage  processions  described  by  me 
as  observed  in  the  desert  were  necessarily  far  less 
elaborate  and  showy  than  many  of  those  which 
are  to  be  seen  in  a large  city.  The  bride,  as  also 
the  bridegroom,  is  often  borne  in  a “palankeen” 
or  “litter,”^  on  the  back  of  a camel,  or  on  horse- 
back, instead  of  going  afoot.  And  jugglers,  or 
sleight-of-hand  performers,  as  well  as  musicians, 
accompany  the  procession,  and  exhibit  their  skill 
during  the  frequent  halts  made  by  the  procession. 
But  in  the  prime  essentials  of  noise  and  show 
and  parade,  these  processions  are  much  the  same 
in  desert  and  village  and  city. 

And  here  I rest  the  explanation  of  the  cere- 
monies attendant  upon  betrothals  and  weddings 

> John  3 ; 27-30. 

*Song  of  Songs  3 : 6-10;  Psa.  19  : 4,  5. 


62 


Studies  in  Oriental  Soeial  Life. 

in  the  East.  But  before  leaving  the  subjecl;,  I 
wish  to  call  attention  to  the  evidence  that  human 
nature  is  the  same  in  the  East  and  in  the  W est, 
and  that  no  theory  of  the  marriage  relation,  or 
system  of  training  with  reference  to  it,  is  suffi- 
cient to  shut  out  the  possibility  of  romantic  love 
between  the  sexes, — regardless  of  the  opinion 
and  wishes  of  parents  and  guardians.  Thus  it 
is  to-day,  and  thus  it  has  been  in  all  the  days  of 
which  we  have  any  historic  record. 

A writer  who  has  essayed  a scientific  study  in 
this  line  of  research,  says  emphatically  that  “ro- 
mantic love,”  or,  as  he  defines  it,  “ pre-matrimo- 
nial  love,”  “is  a modern  sentiment,  less  than  a 
thousand  years  old  ; ” and  he  is  sure  that  “ the 
Bible  takes  no  account  of  it,”  and  that  it  has 
no  recoofuition  in  ancient  classic  literature.  Yet 
in  the  very  first  book  of  the  Old  Testament  nar- 
rative there  appears  the  story  of  young  Jacob’s 
romantic  love  for  Rachel, — a love  which  Avas  in- 
spired by  their  first  meeting,^  and  which  Avas  a 
fresh  and  tender  memory  in  the  patriarch  Jacob’s 
mind  Avhen,  long  years  after  he  had  buried  her 
in  Canaan,'^  he  Avas  on  his  death-bed  in  Egypt.^ 

1 Gen.  29  : 10-18.  Gen.  35  ; 16-20.  ^ Gen.  48  ; 1-7. 


Betrothals  and  Weddings  in  the  East.  63 


In  all  the  literature  of  romantic  love  in  all 
the  acres  there  can  be  found  no  more  touchingr 
exhibit  of  the  true-hearted  fidelity  of  a romantic 
lover  than  that  which  is  given  of  Jacob  in  the 
words:  “And  Jacob  served  seven  years  for  Ra- 
chel ; and  they  seemed  unto  him  but  a few  days, 
for  the  love  he  had  to  her.”^  And  the  entire 
story  confirms  the  abiding  force  of  that  senti- 
ment. There  are,  certainly,  gleams  of  romantic 
love  from  out  the  clouds  of  degraded  human 
nature  in  the  ancient  East,  in  the  Bible  stories  of 
Shechem  and  Dinah,^  of  Samson  and  the  damsel 
of  Timnah,^  of  David  and  Abigail,^  of  Adoni- 
jah  and  Abishag,®  and  of  other  men  and  women 
of  whom  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  tell  us. 

Outside  of  the  Bible  record  we  have  proofs  of 
the  prominence  of  romantic  love  in  the  lands  of 
the  Bible,  in  the  far-gone  ages.  It  shows  itself 
in  the  Assyrian  legend  of  Ishtar  seeking  him 
whom  she  loves  in  the  realm  of  the  dead  ; and 
it  is  seen  in  the  Izdubar  (or,  Gilgamesh)  epic  of 
the  Chaldeans,  where  the  wisdom  of  Ea-bani’s 
heart  vanishes  in  the  presence  of  Harimtu,  and 


1 Gen.  29  : 20. 

* I Sam.  25  : 1-42. 


* Gen.  34  : 1-31. 


® Judg.  14  : 1-3. 
® I Kings  2 : 13-17. 


64  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

he  is  ready  to  follow  the  wise  and  winsome 
woman  whithersoever  she  will. 

An  Egyptian  papyrus  of  the  days  of  Moses  tells 
us  the  story  of  a long  gone  time,  when  a prince’s 
daughter,  in  the  very  land  where  Jacob  wooed 
and  won  Rachel,  was  shut  in  a lofty  tower,  with 
her  father’s  promise  that  whoever  should  scale 
the  walls  of  that  tower  should  be  her  husband. 
And  the  story  narrates  that  when  the  runaway 
son  of  an  Egyptian  king  had  scaled  the  tower  the 
princess  loved  him  from  the  moment  of  their 
meeting  ; and  every  effort  to  induce  her  to  forgo 
her  purpose  of  being  the  bride  of  the  unknown 
hero  was  unavailing.  “ By  the  Sun,  if  he  is  slain, 
. . . I will  die  too,”  she  said.  And  after  the  pat- 
tern of  the  modern  love-story  the  lovers  were 
married,  and  were  all  the  happier  for  that. 

And  so  it  has  been  all  the  way  down  the  ages. 
The  legends  and  traditions  of  the  East  abound 
with  stories  of  romantic  love,  as  does  the  literature 
of  Arabia  and  Syria  and  Turkey  and  Persia  in 
modern  times.  “ Sometimes  love  has  been  im- 
planted by  one  glance  alone,”  says  an  Arabic 
proverb,  in  suggestion  of  the  truth  that  it  re- 
quires no  long  courtship.  East  or  West,  to  make 


Betrothals  and  Weddings  in  the  East.  65 


lovers.  And  a Syriac  proverb,  which  is  a coun- 
terpart to  this,  in  its  suggestion  that  you  cannot 
compel  love  by  a betrothal  any  more  than  you  can 
guard  against  it  by  seclusion,  is  this  ; “ Every- 
thing is  [to  be  found]  in  the  druggist’s  shop  ; 
but  ‘Love  me  by  force  ’ is  not  there.”  And  our 
English  proverb  which  supplements  these  two  is 
“ Love  laughs  at  locksmiths.”  Love  has  been, 
love  is,  and  love  will  continue  to  be,  simply 
because  it  is  in  human  nature  to  love,  and  there 
is  a great  deal  of  human  nature  in  most  persons. 

Romantic  elopements  are  a feature  of  social 
life  in  the  East  as  well  as  in  the  West ; and  there 
are  hopeless  lovers  and  jilting  lasses  there  as 
well  as  here.  Morier  tells,  for  example,  of  a 
large  painting  in  a pleasure  house  in  Shiraz, 
illustrative  of  the  treatment  of  a loyal  lover  by 
a heartless  coquette,  which  is  one  of  the  popular 
legends  of  Persia.  “Sheik  Chenan,  a Persian 
of  the  true  faith,  and  a man  of  learning  and  con- 
sequence, fell  in  love  with  an  Armenian  lady  of 
great  beauty,  who  would  not  marry  him  unless 
he  changed  his  religion.  To  this  he  agreed. 
Still  she  would  not  marry  him  unless  he  would 

drink  wine.  This  scruple  also  he  yielded.  She 

5 


66  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

resisted  still,  unless  he  consented  to  eat  pork. 
With  this  also  he  complied.  Still  she  was  coy, 
and  refused  to  fulfil  her  engag-ement,  unless  he 
would  be  contented  to  drive  swine  before  her. 
Even  this  condition  he  accepted  ; and  she  then 
told  him  that  she  would  not  have  him  at  all, 
and  laughed  at  him  for  his  pains.  The  picture 
represents  the  coquette  at  her  window,  laughing 
at  Sheik  Chenan  as  he  is  driving  his  pigs  before 
her.” 

So  we  see  that  there  is  no  lack  of  evidence 
that  romantic  love  has  had  sufficient  sway  to 
make  fools  of  wise  men — as  well  as  to  make 
fools  and  wise  men  happy — in  the  East,  as  truly 
as  in  the  West,  in  spite  of  all  the  traditional 
guards  which  have  been  ereeded  against  it  by 
Oriental  methods  of  betrothal  and  marriage. 
There  was  never  a time  when  sentiment  was 
counted  out  as  an  important  facdor  in  the  mar- 
riage relation,  and  there  never  will  be. 

There  is  one  other  point  which  is  worthy  of 
special  attention  in  an  outlook  over  the  field  of 
Oriental  marriage  customs  past  and  present. 
In  observing  the  position  of  woman  in  the  East 
as  maiden,  wife,  and  mother,  and  also  simply  as 


Betrothals  a7id  Weddings  in  the  East.  67 


woman,  we  see  much  that  is  in  unpleasant  con- 
trast with  the  corresponding  position  of  woman 
in  our  own  portion  of  the  world,  under  the  in- 
rtuence  of  Christianity  as  it  is  to-day.  Yet,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  is  unmistakably  the  fadt  that 
the  highest  honor  accorded  to  woman  as  woman, 
and  as  maiden,  wife,  and  mother,  among  our- 
selves in  this  nineteenth  century  of  Christian 
civilization,  does  not  transcend  the  position  which 
has  been  recognized  as  her  right  at  some  time 
and  at  some  place  in  the  ancient  Oriental  world. 
And  this  fad;  we  ought  to  recognize  as  a fad, 
whatever  be  its  influence  on  our  favorite  theories 
of  human  progress. 

The  very  earliest  Egyptian  records  that  we 
have,  show  the  one  wife  of  the  king  as  his  true 
consort  and  partner,  loved  and  trusted  by  him, 
and  known  to  and  honored  by  the  people.  A 
thousand  years  before  the  days  of  Abraham, 
Egyptian  law  secured  to  women  the  right  of  suc- 
cession to  the  throne  of  Egypt ; and  queen  after 
queen  swayed  the  empire  of  Egypt  when  Egypt 
swayed  the  empires  of  the  world.  The  oldest 
sculpture  yet  recovered  from  the  ruins  of  Egypt 
represents  a prince  and  a princess  as  husband 


68  Studies  in  Orioital  Social  Life. 

and  wife,  seated  side  by  side,  the  wife  unveiled, 
and  her  face  showing  a measure  of  character  and 
of  intelligence  worthy  of  her  princely  husband. 
And  all  the  records  of  those  ancient  days  tend 
to  show  that,  in  the  realm  of  the  heart,  woman’s 
power  was  as  dominant  then  as  now. 

It  was  not  in  Egypt  alone  that  woman’s  worth 
and  woman’s  ability  secured  a measure  of  recog- 
nition in  the  early  East.  However  much  of 
purely  mythical  charadler  there  is  to  the  story  of 
Semiramis,  it  is  obvious  that  the  fa6ls  of  history 
in  the  ancient  Oriental  world  were  such  as  to 
justify  credence  to  an  ideal  like  that,  of  woman’s 
royal  supremacy.  We  know  something  of  the 
record  of  Miriam^  and  Deborah^  and  JezebeP 
and  Athaliah*  and  Huldah  ^ among  the  Hebrews ; 
of  the  famous  Queen  of  Sheba  ;®  of  Dido,  queen 
of  Carthage ; of  Cleopatra  the  greater,  and  of  the 
lesser  Cleopatras ; of  Candace,  queen  of  the 
Ethiopians;'^  of  Zenobia,  queen  of  Palmyra;  and 
of  many  another  woman  who  was  a leader  and 
a ruler  of  men,  in  the  East  of  the  olden  time  ; 

*Exod.  15  : 20,  21  ; Num.  12:1.  Hudg.  4 ; 4-10 ; 5 : i. 

•’  I Kings  t6  : 29-33 : '9  ^ ''3  i 21  : 4-16,  25. 

^2  Kings  II  : 1-16.  ^2  Kings  22  ; 12-20  ; 2 Chron.  34  : 20-28. 

® I Kings  10  : 1-13  ; 2 Chron.  9:1-12.  ’ Acts  8 : 27. 


Betrothals  and'Weddmgs  in  the  East.  69 


nor  are  such  instances  unknown  in  later  Oriental 
history.  And  all  this  has  been  in  spite  of  those 
Oriental  theories  and  customs  which  have  seemed 
to  us  certain  to  crush  and  degrade  woman. 

The  Old  Testament  narrative  presents  beauti- 
ful piclures  of  true  wives  and  mothers  even  as 
viewed  in  the  clearest  light  of  this  nineteenth 
Christian  century.  What  description,  for  ex- 
ample, of  a model  woman  in  those  relations  of 
life,  could  surpass  that  which  was  already  pro- 
verbial among  the  Hebrews  of  twenty-five  hun- 
dred years  ago  or  more  ? 

She  is  a faithful  wife  and  a true  helpmeet : 

“ The  heart  other  husband  trusteth  in  her, 

And  he  shall  have  no  lack  of  gain. 

She  doeth  him  good  and  not  evil 
All  the  days  of  her  life.” 

She  is  an  efficient  housekeeper  : 

" She  riseth  also  while  it  is  yet  night, 

And  giveth  meat  to  her  household. 

And  their  task  to  her  maidens.” 

She  is  a competent  business  woman  : 

“ She  considereth  a field,  and  buyeth  it: 

With  the  fruit  of  her  hands  she  planteth  a vineyard.  . . . 

She  perceiveth  that  her  merchandise  is  profitable.” 


70 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


She  has  a kindly  and  generous  heart : 

“ She  spreadeth  out  her  hand  to  the  poor; 

Yea,  she  reacheth  forth  her  hands  to  the  needy.” 

She  has  good  taste,  and  evidences  it : 

" For  all  her  household  are  clothed  with  scarlet. 

She  maketh  for  herself  cushions  of  tapestry ; 

Her  clothing  is  fine  linen  and  purple.” 

She  is  a power  over  and  behind  her  husband  : 

“ Her  husband  is  known  in  the  gates, 

When  he  sitteth  among  the  elders  of  the  land.” 

She  lacks  neither  brains  nor  heart : 

“ She  openeth  her  mouth  with  wisdom  ; 

And  the  law  of  kindness  is  on  her  tongue.” 

She  is  just  the  best  wife  and  mother  that  can  be  : 

“ Her  children  rise  up,  and  call  her  blessed  ; 

Her  husband  also,  and  he  praiseth  her,  saying : 

Many  daughters  have  done  virtuously. 

But  thou  excellest  them  all.”* 

And  what  better  could  any  husband  say  than 
that?  There  was  no  room  in  such  a family  for 
the  question,  “ Is  marriage  a failure  ” ? Yet  it  is 
an  old-time  Oriental  family  that  is  here  de- 
scribed— described  not  merely  as  it  ought  to  be, 
* Prov.  31:1 1-29. 


Betrothals  and  Weddings  in  the  East.  7 1 


but  as  it  was  eight  centuries  or  so  before  the 
Christian  era. 

There  are  model  wiv'es  and  mothers  in  the 
East  to-day;  and  nowhere  are  husbands  more 
completely  under  the  influence  of  wise  and  de- 
voted wives,  as  also  of  evil  and  designing  ones, 
than  in  some  of  the  homes  which  are  there. 
Oriental  literature  abounds  with  the  portrayal 
of  conjugal  love  and  fidelity,  as  well  as  with  in- 
stances of  the  lack  of  these.  One  of  the  seven 
wonders  of  the  ancient  world  was  the  Mauso- 
leum ereeded  to  the  memory  of  her  husband  by 
his  wife  Artemisia,  who  is  said  to  have  mingled 
his  ashes  in  her  daily  drink,  in  token  of  her  un- 
dying sorrow.  And  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
architectural  structures  under  the  whole  heavens 
is  the  Taj  Mahal  at  Agra,  ereCled  by  a royal  and 
loyal  Oriental  husband,  as  a token  of  his  surpass- 
ing devotion  to  the  memory  of  his  noble  wife. 

In  short,  a truth  which  stands  out  in  all  the 
pages  of  Oriental  history  concerning  the  mar- 
riage relation  of  primeval  times  is  the  truth  which 
Jesus  of  Nazareth  affirmed,  when  he  declared 
that  long  before  the  days  of  Moses  there  was  a 
purer,  nobler  ideal  of  the  marriage  relation  than 


72 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


could  be  fully  realized  in  the  days  of  Mosesd 
And  a conclusion  which  Christians  are  entitled 
to  accept  in  the  light  of  this  truth  is,  that,  while 
Christianity  did  not  originate  that  ideal,  Chris- 
tianity has  a duty  to  promote  its  restoration  ; so 
that  at  the  last,  as  at  the  beginning,  betrothal  and 
wedding  shall  be  but  successive  steps  to  bring 
two  hearts  and  lives  into  loving  and  changeless 
union. 

' Matt.  5 : 31,  32;  19  : 3-11  ; Mark  10  : 3-12. 


HOSPITALITY  IN  THE  EAST. 


Hospitality  in  the  East  is  not  merely  a per- 
sonal and  social  virtue  : it  is  a center  from  which 
all  social  virtues  radiate,  and  it  takes  precedence 
of  all  other  personal  virtues.  As  it  shows  itself 
at  its  best,  and  among  the  more  primitive  peoples 
of  the  East, — not  the  more  savage  but  the  more 
primitive  peoples, — hospitality  would  seem  to  be 
a virtue  having  its  root  in  no  selfish  considera- 
tions, and  being  trained  within  no  limits  of  mere 
utilitarian  convenience.  Its  highest  exercise,  as 
understood  in  the  East,  requires  a measure  of 

73 


74  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

self-abnegation  and  of  fidelity  to  a sentiment  as 
a sentiment,  demanded  in  no  other  duty  of  a man 
toward  his  fellow-man. 

Of  course,  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  this 
virtue,  or  any  other  virtue,  has  prevailing  sway 
with  every  individual  among  the  peoples  recog- 
nizing it  as  their  loftiest  ideal  ; nor  yet  that  its 
exercise  is  in  every  case  unshadowed  by  any 
taint  of  personal  infirmity  on  the  part  of  those 
who  admit  the  force  of  its  claims.  But  it  is  true 
that  among  Orientals,  from  Eastern  Turkey  to 
Central  India,  and  from  Northern  Persia  to 
Southern  Arabia,  and  more  or  less  beyond  these 
bounds,  the  virtue  of  hospitality  has  a pre-emi- 
nence, in  its  obligations  and  in  its  significance, 
not  recognized  to  the  same  extent  elsewhere  in 
the  world  at  large,  and  which  is  worthy  of  atten- 
tion because  of  its  holding  in  control  the  more 
selfish  instinCls  of  human  nature  to  an  extent 
that  is  the  more  marvelous  the  more  fully  it  is 
known. 

In  the  primitive  East,  hospitality  is  more  far- 
reaching  in  its  scope  and  more  exabf  ing  in  its  ob- 
ligations than  anything  which  we  know  of  under 
that  name  in  the  conventional  West.  With  us, 


Hospitality  in  the  East. 


75 


one  is  hospitable  when  he  extends  a hearty 
welcome  to  his  chosen  guests,  and  makes  them 
sharers  of  his  family  life,  or  of  an  entertainment 
given  in  their  honor.  But  the  idea  of  true  hospi- 
tality in  the  East  is  indicated  in  the  Oriental 
proverbs  : “Every  stranger  is  an  invited  guest,” 
and  “The  guest  while  in  the  house  is  its  lord.” 
Even  an  enemy  becomes  a friend  by  choosing  to 
be  a guest,  in  the  East, — a truth  that  would  seem 
to  have  a survival  in  the  West  in  the  fa6l  that 
the  terms  “hostile,”  “host,”  and  “hospitality,”  as 
in  use  among  us,  are  from  one  and  the  same 
root.  “Guest”  also  is  from  the  same  root.  A 
host,  according  to  the  Oriental  conception,  is  one 
who  gives  the  first  place  to  an  enemy  while  that 
enemy  is  his  guest. 

The  exhibit  of  this  idea  of  hospitality  is  to  be 
seen  by  every  traveler  in  the  East  who  has  any 
opportunity  of  observing  the  more  primitive  life 
of  that  region.  It  is  much  the  same,  at  its  best, 
in  Palestine  to-day,  as  it  was  in  the  days  of  Abra- 
ham, and  long  before.  A gleam  of  its  light  on 
my  pathway  through  that  land,  was  illustrative 
of  the  life  that  has  been  the  same  there  from  the 
days  of  the  patriarchs  downward. 


76 


Studies  in  Orienta/  Social  Life. 


It  was  just  out  from  “the  valley  of  Jezreel,”^ 
near  the  place  where  Gideon  made  his  night 
attack  upon  the  host  of  the  Midianites,"  that  I 
saw  the  black  tents  ^ of  a party  of  Bed'ween  in 
the  distance  as  I passed  along,  one  forenoon  in 
the  springtime,  on  my  way  from  the  ruins  of 
ancient  Jezreel  toward  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  These 
“children  of  the  East”  * were  apparently  .of  some 
branch  of  the  great  ’Anazeh  tribe,  which  is 
thought  by  many  to  represent  the  Midianites  of 
the  Bible  story  ; coming  in  as  they  do  across  the 
fords  of  the  Jordan  upon  these  plains  of  Pales- 
tine, from  their  tribal  grounds  on  the  east  of  the 
river.  The  picduresqueness  of  the  scene  im- 
pressed me,  but  I had  no  thought  of  making  a 
stop  at  that  point ; nor  should  I have  done  so 
except  for  the  unlooked-for  exhibit  of  a phase  of 
Oriental  hospitality  on  the  part  of  these  desert 
rovers. 

As  our  party  neared  the  tents,  with  the  inten- 
tion of  passing  to  the  north  of  them,  I observed 
a Bed'wy  woman  with  a bulky  cloth  bag,  or  sack, 
upon  her  shoulders,  the  bag  oozing  moisture  as 


Judg.  6 : 33. 

Song  of  Songs  i : 5. 


’‘Judg.  7:1,  12-23. 
*Judg.  6 : 3,  4. 


Hospitality  in  the  East. 


77 


if  its  contents  were  liquid.  I reined  up  my  horse, 
in  order  to  see  how  it  was  that  water  was  being 
carried  in  a cloth  bag.  In  answer  to  my  ques- 
tion I was  told  that  the  bag  contained  leben,  or 
thickened  milk,  which  is  a staple  article  of  diet 
among  the  pastoral  peoples  of  the  East.  But 
that  question  of  mine  had  put  me  into  a new 
relation  with  the  Bed'ween  there.  It  had  brought 
our  party  within  the  scope  of  the  tribe’s  hospi- 
tality, as  I quickly  had  occasion  to  realize. 

The  Bed'wy  shaykh  was  sitting  in  the  entrance 
way  of  his  tent,  as  Abraham  was  accustomed  to  sit 
in  his  day.^  And  the  shaykh’s  tent  was  design- 
edly nearest  the  traveled  way,  in  order  that  he 
could  be  on  the  watch  for  stranger  guests.  See- 
ing a party  of  travelers  stop  in  the  vicinity  of 
his  tribe,  he  arose  from  his  place  and  came  for- 
ward, with  all  the  dignity  of  bearing  and  court- 
liness of  manner  of  the  true  Arab  chieftain,  to 
ask  them  to  honor  him  by  alighting  and  accept- 
ing the  hospitality  of  his  tent.  To  have  declined 
this  invitation  without  a good  and  sufficient  rea- 
son would  have  been  a positive  rudeness  on  our 
part,  as  Orientals  view  it.  Therefore  we  dis- 

^ Gen.  i8  : I.  • 


78 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


mounted,  and  were  conducted  to  Shaykh  Moosa’s 
tent. 

The  best  rugs  were  spread  on  the  ground  for 
us  just  inside  the  entrance  of  the  tent ; and  the 
rear  Hap  of  the  tent  was  lifted  in  order  to  give 
us  all  the  fresh  air  available  in  the  heat  of  the 
day.  With  expressions  of  grateful  acknowledg- 
ment of  his  sense  of  the  privilege  of  entertaining 
us,  the  shaykh  proceeded  with  his  preparations 
for  our  entertainment.  He  called  to  his  wife, 
who  was  within  hearing  but  out  of  sight  behind 
the  curtain,  or  tent  flap,  which  separates  the 
hareem,  or  women’s  apartment,  from  the  men’s, ^ 
and  bade  her  hasten  and  bake  a cake  of  bread 
for  the  guests.^ 

A fire  of  sticks  was  kindled  before  us  by  the 
shaykh’s  own  hands.  He  was  our  servant  for 
the  time  being — Christian  strangers  though  we 
were.  Coffee-berries  from  the  Hejaz  were  put 
into  a small  iron  saucepan,  and  slowly  roasted 
by  him  over  the  fire.  Water  was  poured  into  a 
brazen  coffee-pot  and  set  upon  the  fire  to  boil. 
Meanwhile  the  curdled  milk,  or  “butter,”  as  it 
is  sometimes  called  in  our  version  of  the  Bible,^ 

* Gen.  i8  : 9,  10.  * Gen.  18  ; 6.  “ Comp.  Judg.  4 : 19 ; 5:25. 


Hospitality  in  the  East. 


79 


was  served  to  us  freely  from  such  a sack  as  that 
which  had  first  attracted  our  attention.  When 
the  coffee  was  roasted  it  was  put  into  a hardwood 
mortar,  and  pounded  very  fine  with  a metal 
pestle.  In  this  process  the  shaykh  kept  time 
with  his  pestle  against  the  sides  of  the  mortar, 
in  peculiar  and  pleasing  rhythmic  notes,  this 
“ music  of  the  pestle  ” being  one  of  the  esteemed 
accomplishments  of  an  Arab  host. 

From  a small  leathern  case  the  shaykh  took  a 
number  of  tiny  china  cups  and  their  metal  holders 
or  saucers.  Each  of  these  cups  was  carefully 
washed  by  him  in  its  turn,  as  was  ever)^  article 
which  he  brought  into  requisition.  The  finely 
pounded  coffee  was  put  into  the  pot  of  hot  water, 
and  was  speedily  ready  for  use, — Arab  coffee 
when  served  for  drinking  being  rather  of  the 
consistency  of  chocolate  paste  than  of  our  infu- 
sion of  ground  coffee.  The  first  tiny  cup  of  this 
coffee  was  reverently  poured  out  on  the  ground 
as  a libation  ; the  second  was  drunk  by  the  shaykh 
himself,  as  if  in  proof  of  his  good  faith  ; and  then 
the  coffee  was  gracefully  served  to  us  in  turn, 
according  to  our  ages, — the  shaykh  standing 
while  we  sat ; each  visitor  receiving  two  cups. 


8o  Studies  i?i  Orie7ital  Social  Life. 

The  shaykh  meanwhile  asked  our  permis- 
sion to  slay  a lamb  for  us,  to  be  eaten  with  the 
bread  that  his  wife  was  preparing  d but  our  stay 
had  already  been  unduly  prolonged,  and  we  said 
that  our  business  demanded  our  departure.  The 
shaykh  urged  us  not  to  be  in  haste,  for  there 
was  twie  enough  before  us, — an  Arab  having  no 
idea  of  the  value  of  time.  It  was  only  when  we 
assured  our  host  that  now  we  must  be  going,  but 
that  if  we  came  that  way  on  our  return  we  would 
stop  longer  with  him,  that  we  were  permitted  to 
take  our  leave.  He  repeated  his  thanks  to  us 
for  our  visit,  as  if  he  alone  had  been  honored  ; 
although  we  did  not  refrain  from  thanking  him 
most  heartily.  As  we  mounted  our  horses  the 
shaykh  held  my  stirrup,  I being  the  senior  of  the 
party ; then  he  kissed  our  hands,  and  pressed 
his  forehead  to  them,  and  gave  us  a parting 
“ Ma’assalame  ” as  we  rode  away. 

For  this  entertainment  of  us  no  payment  or  gift 
of  any  sort  would  be  accepted  by  that  typical 
Bed'wy  shaykh.  It  was  simply  an  exhibit  of  the 
virtue  of  hospitality,  which  is  the  virtue  of  virtues 
in  Oriental  estimation.  Nor  was  even  this  an 


1 Gen.  1 8 : 6-8. 


Hospitality  in  the  East. 


8i 


exhibit  of  that  virtue  at  its  extremest  bounds. 
Incidentally,  however,  as  a result  of  my  stopping 
to  question  a member  of  that  tribe  of  Arabs,  I 
had  been  given  a new  understanding  of  the  de- 
lays which  might  come  to  a traveler  in  the  East 
from  saluting  any  man  by  the  way,  and  thereby 
bringing  himself  within  the  scope  of  that  man’s 
rights,  and  duties,  of  hospitality.^ 

The  more  primitive  the  Oriental  people,  the 
more  prominent  their  ideal  of  unselfish  hospi- 
tality. Bruce,  who  traveled  observantly  in  the 
East  from  Syria  to  Abyssinia,  says  on  this  point : 
“ Hospitality  is  the  virtue  of  barbarians,  who  are 
hospitable  in  the  ratio  that  they  are  barbarous  ; 
and  for  obvious  reasons  this  virtue  subsides 
among  polished  nations  in  the  same  proportion.” 
And  later  travelers  in  the  East  have  recognized 
the  truth  that  underneath  this  exhibit  of  hospi- 
tality, on  the  part  of  Oriental  peoples  generally, 
there  is  a profound  sense  of  obligation  to  a prin- 
ciple, as  distined  from  the  promptings  of  those 
simpler  instindls  of  humanity  to  which  we  have 
been  inclined  to  ascribe  any  show  of  morals  by 
“ barbarians.” 


* Luke  lo  : 4. 
6 


82  Studies  in  Oriejital  Social  Life. 

Speaking  of  the  more  primitive  Bed'ween  of 
Arabia,  Burton  says:  “‘Trust  to  their  honor 
and  you  are  safe,  ...  to  their  honesty  and 
they  will  steal  the  hair  off  your  head;’”  which 
is  only  another  way  of  saying  that  if  you  com- 
mit yourself  as  a guest  to  an  Arab,  you  and 
your  possessions  are  safe  in  his  care,  however 
his  views  may  differ  from  yours  as  to  the  ordi- 
nary rights  of  person  and  property. 

Mr.  Thomas  Stevens,  an  adventurous  young 
American,  who  not  long  ago  went  around  the 
world  on  a bicycle,  bears  hearty  testimony  to  this 
truth  out  of  his  experience  among  the  Orientals. 
Speaking  of  his  liability  to  be  robbed  if  he  de- 
pended on  his  watchfulness  over  his  personal 
property,  in  the  towns  of  Asia  Minor,  he  says  : 
“ I find  that  upon  arriving  at  one  of  these  towns, 
the  best  possible  disposition  to  make  of  the 
bicycle  is  to  deliver  it  into  the  hands  of  some 
respedlable  Turk,  request  him  to  preserve  it 
from  the  meddlesome  crowd,  and  then  pay  no 
farther  attention  to  it  until  ready  to  start.  At- 
tempting to  keep  watch  over  it  one’s  self  is  sure 
to  result  in  a dismal  failure  ; whereas  an  Osmanli 
gray-beard  becomes  an  ever-willing  custodian,  re- 


Hospitality  in  the  East. 


83 


gards  its  safe-keeping  as  appealing  to  his  honor, 
and  will  stand  guard  over  it  for  hours,  if  neces- 
sary, keeping  the  noisy  and  curious  crowds  of  his 
townspeople  at  a respeClful  distance  by  brandish- 
ing a thick  stick  at  any  one  who  ventures  to 
approach  too  near.”  And  Mr.  Stevens  adds : 
“These  men  will  never  accept  payment  for  this 
highly  appreciated  service  ; it  seems  to  appeal 
to  the  Osmanli’s  spirit  of  hospitality.” 

Burckhardt,  describing  the  charadleristics  of 
the  people  in  the  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon 
regions,  says  : “The  mountaineers,  when  upon  a 
journey,  never  think  of  spending  a para  for  their 
eating,  drinking,  or  lodging.  On  arriving  in  the 
evening  at  a village,  they  alight  at  the  house  of 
some  acquaintance,  if  they  have  any,  which  is 
generally  the  case,  and  say  to  the  owner,  ‘ I am 
your  guest.’ . . . The  host  gives  the  traveler  a 
supper,  consisting  of  milk,  bread,  and  borgul, 
and,  if  rich  and  liberal,  feeds  his  mule  or  mare 
also.  When  the  traveler  has  no  acquaintance  in 
the  village,  he  alights  at  any  house  he  pleases, 
ties  up  his  beast,  and  smokes  his  pipe  till  he 
receives  a welcome  from  the  master  of  the  house, 
who  makes  it  a point  of  honor  to  receive  him  as 


84  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

a friend,  and  to  give  him  a supper.  In  the  morn- 
ing he  departs  with  a simple  ‘ Good-by.’  Such 
is  the  general  custom  in  these  parts.” 

Such  seems  to  have  been  the  ideal  custom  in 
the  patriarchal  days  of  the  Old  Testament  story. 
When  the  two  strangers  came  to  Sodom  in  the 
evening,  “and  Lot  sat  in  the  gate  of  Sodom: 
and  Lot  saw  them,  and  rose  up  to  meet  them  ; and 
he  bowed  himself  with  his  face  to  the  earth  ; 
and  he  said.  Behold  now,  my  lords,  turn  aside,  I 
pray  you,  into  your  servant’s  house  [the  guest  is 
the  lord,  and  the  host  is  the  servant],  and  tarry 
all  night,  and  wash  your  feet,  and  ye  shall  rise  up 
early,  and  go  on  your  way.  And  they  said.  Nay; 
but  we  will  abide  in  the  street  all  night.  And 
he  urged  them  greatly  ; and  they  turned  in  unto 
him,  and  entered  into  his  house  ; and  he  made 
them  a feast,  and  did  bake  unleavened  bread, 
and  they  did  eat.”^ 

So,  again,  it  was  in  the  days  of  the  Judges, 
when  the  Levite  and  his  companions  came  to  the 
city  of  Gibeah  at  the  close  of  the  day,  and  he 
“sat  him  down  in  the  street  of  the  city  : for  there 
was  no  man  that  took  them  into  his  house  to 


’ Gen.  19  : 1-3. 


Hospitality  in  the  East. 


85 


lodge.  And,  behold,  there  came  an  old  man  from 
his  work  out  of  the  field  at  even  ; . . . and  he 
lifted  up  his  eyes,  and  saw  the  wayfaring  man  in 
the  street  of  the  city  ; and  the  old  man  said. 
Whither  goest  thou  ? and  whence  comest  thou  ? 
And  he  said  unto  him.  We  are  passing  from 
Beth-lehem-judah  unto  the  farther  side  of  the 
hill  country  of  Ephraim  ; . . . and  there  is  no  man 
that  taketh  me  into  his  house.  Yet  there  is  both 
straw  and  provender  for  our  asses  ; and  there  is 
bread  and  wine  also  for  me,  and  for  thy  hand- 
maid, and  for  the  young  man  which  is  with  thy 
servants  : there  is  no  want  of  any  thing.  And 
the  old  man  said.  Peace  be  unto  thee  ; howsoever 
let  all  thy  wants  lie  upon  me  ; only  lodge  not  in 
the  street.  So  he  brought  him  into  his  house, 
and  gave  the  asses  fodder : and  they  washed  their 
feet,  and  did  eat  and  drink.” ^ 

All  the  way  down  the  desert  coast,  on  the  east 
side  of  the  Jordan,  Burckhardt  found  illustrations 
in  great  variety  of  this  Oriental  hospitality.  At 
an  encampment  of  the  Szowaleha  Bed'ween,  the 
Arabs  had  a long  and  fierce  dispute  among  them- 
selves to  decide  who  should  have  the  honor  of 


* Judg.  19  : 15-21. 


86  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

entertaining  him.  In  that  tribe,  he  who  first  sees 
a stranger  approaching,  and  pre-empts  him  by- 
saying,  “There  comes  my  guest,”  has  the  right 
'of  entertaining  him,  at  whatever  tent  he  may 
alight ; and  this  custom,  naturally,  opens  many  a 
question  of  precedence  in  the  nomination  of  the 
“ coming  man.” 

At  the  town  of  Kerek,  Burckhardt  found  eight 
public  guest-houses ; and  a stranger  entering 
any  one  of  these  houses  was  at  once  claimed  as 
a guest  by  some  inhabitant  of  the  town,  and  pro- 
vided for  most  bountifully.  At  the  appearance 
of  a stranger  the  inhabitants  would  “ almost 
come  to  blows  with  one  another  in  their  eager- 
ness to  have  him  for  their  guest.”  Whenever  a 
guest,  or  even  a neighbor,  entered  a private 
house  in  that  town,  a meal  was  at  once  set 
before  him. 

So  scrupulous,  indeed,  were  these  people,  in 
the  duty  of  hospitality,  that  on  one  occasion 
when  a silversmith  came  into  Kerek,  and  for  two 
months  was  too  busy  to  go  visiting,  “each  of 
the  principal  families  of  the  town  sent  him  a 
lamb,”  at  the  time  of  his  departure  from  Kerek, 
“saying  that  it  was  not  just  that  he  should 


Hospitality  in  the  East. 


87 


lose  his  due  [as  a guest],  though  he  did  not 
choose  to  come  and  dine  with  them.”  That 
is  somewhat  different  from  the  Occidental  hotel- 
keeper’s method  of  charging  a guest  full  price  for 
the  entire  number  of  meals  due  during  his  stay, 
whether  he  has  had  them  or  not. 

As  showing  the  delicate  considerateness  of  the 
Bed'ween  in  the  exercise  of  this  hospitable  spirit, 
which  is  a “ characteristic  common  to  the  Arabs  ” 
as  a people,  Burckhardt  tells  of  his  alighting,  on 
one  occasion,  with  his  party,  at  the  tent  of  a 
Hamayde  shaykh  who  was  dying  of  a wound  he 
had  received  from  a lance  several  days  before, 
A friend  of  the  family  welcomed  the  guests.  A 
lamb  was  killed  for  them.  Every  attention  possi- 
ble was  shown  to  them,  without  any  intimation 
being  given  of  the  condition  of  the  suffering 
shaykh.  The  shaykh,  meanwhile,  was  in  the 
women’s  apartment,  and  during  the  evening 
and  night  he  uttered  never  a groan.  It  was 
supposed,  with  reason,  that  if  the  guests  were  in- 
formed of  the  shaykh’s  misfortune  it  would  pre- 
vent their  enjoying  their  supper  ; and  not  until 
they  had  left  the  tent,  the  day  following,  did 
they  learn  the  true  state  of  the  case.  Could  self- 


88  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

iorgetful  consiclerateness  of  others  be  more  deli- 
cately manifested  than  in  such  a course  ? 

Of  the  disinterestedness  of  all  such  service  on 
the  part  of  the  Bed'ween  entertainers,  Burck- 
hardt  says  : “ It  is  a point  of  honor  with  the  host 
never  to  accept  of  the  smallest  return  from  a 
guest.  I once  only  ventured  to  give  a few  pias- 
tres to  the  child  of  a very  poor  family  at  Zahouet, 
by  whom  we  had  been  most  hospitably  treated, 
and  rode  off  without  attending  to  the  cries  of  the 
mother,  who  insisted  upon  my  taking  back  the 
money.” 

Speaking  of  the  Bed'ween  of  Syria,  Egypt, 
and  the  Hejaz,  as  a whole,  Burckhardt  says  : 
“ The  offer  of  any  reward  to  a Bedouin  host 
is  generally  offensive  to  his  pride ; but  some 
little  presents  may  be  given  to  the  women  and 
children.  . . . For  my  own  part,  being  convinced 
that  the  hospitality  of  the  Bedouin  is  afforded 
with  disinterested  cordiality,  I was  in  general 
averse  to  making  the  slightest  return.  ...  A 
Bedouin  will  praise  the  guest  who  departs  from 
him  without  making  any  other  remuneration 
than  that  of  bestowing  a blessing  upon  them 
and  their  encampment,  much  more  than  him 


Hospitality  in  the  East. 


89 


who  thinks  to  redeem  all  obligations  by  pay- 
ment.” 

My  friend  and  associate,  Professor  Dr.  Hil- 
precht,  while  on  the  Babylonian  Exploring  Ex- 
pedition, had  an  illustration  of  this  truth,  in  a 
visit  made  by  him  to  the  shaykh  of  Zeta,  near 
Wady  Brissa,  in  the  Lebanon  region.  Having 
been  hospitably  entertained  over  night,  and 
supposing  that  the  custom  of  receiving  “bakh- 
sheesh  ” for  entertainment,  which  prevails  along 
the  routes  of  public  travel,  where  primitive 
life  has  suffered  by  its  conta6l  with  civilization, 
would  be  approved  here  also,  he  arranged  with 
his  Arab  muleteer,  Daheer,  to  hand  a Turkish 
mejeedi — a silver  coin — to  the  shaykh,  as  they 
left  his  tent  in  the  morning.  But  he  found  he 
had  mistaken  his  man. 

At  the  first  proffer  of  the  silver  from  the  mule- 
teer, the  shaykh,  “with  a kind  but  decided  ges- 
ture, pushed  back  the  money”  from  him.  But 
when  it  was  pressed  on  him  more  urgently,  he 
was  aroused  to  indignation.  “A  slight  tremor,” 
says  Dr.  Hilprecht,  “passed  through  the  frame 
of  the  shaykh,  who  had  thus  been  flagrantly  in- 
sulted in  the  presence  of  his  subjedls.  He  sprang 


90  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

from  the  stone  on  which  he  had  been  squatting, 
and  his  fearful  passion  betrayed  itself  in  a wild 
gesture  and  a convulsive  clenching  of  his  fist. 
Drawing  himself  to  his  full  height,  he  stood  with 
flashing  eyes,  his  patched  and  ragged  abba 
fluttering  about  his  shoulders, — the  pi6lure  of 
royalty  in  the  garb  of  a beggar.  The  excited 
Arabs  crowded  about  their  chief,  and  anxiously 
regarded  the  actions  of  this  enraged  Oriental. 
Finally  he  rang  out,  ‘Am  I a dog?  Do  they 
dare  to  give  the  shaykh  of  Zeta  money  in  return 
for  his  hospitality  ? ’ At  the  same  time,  with  a 
withering  glance,  he  flung  the  proffered  coin  at 
the  feet  of  the  frightened  mukari.” 

Dr.  Hilprecht  was  prompt  and  profuse  In  his 
regrets  for  the  action  of  his  servant,  and  in  apolo- 
gies because  of  it ; but  at  the  best  it  was  evident 
that  a serious  affront  had  been  given.  The 
travelers  felt  that  they  would  do  well  to  hasten 
their  departure  ; and  only  by  the  energetic  adtion 
of  the  shaykh  in  their  behalf  were  they  guarded 
from  violence,  as  they  passed  out  from  the  village 
through  the  gathering  crowd  of  those  who  had 
learned  that  their  shaykh  had  been  insulted  ; but 
he  was  still  their  host,  and  he  went  with  them  for 


91 


Hospitality  in  the  East. 

their  protedlion  until  they  were  at  the  boundary 
line  of  his  authority,  at  a brook  beyond  Zeta  on 
the  way  toward  Homs. 

Among  the  Druses  of  El-Leja,  it  is  found  that, 
while  they  will  accept  no  remuneration  for  their 
profusest  hospitality,  they  are  gratified  when  a 
guest  gives  them  a note,  written  in  Arabic,  in 
acknowledgment  of  their  fidelity  to  the  tradi- 
tional laws  of  hospitality.  Those  laws  are  bind- 
ing upon  them  as  pre-eminently  sacred,  and  their 
observance  of  them  is  a privilege  and  a joy. 

Yet,  although  no  specific  reward  for  hospitality 
is  to  be  proffered  to  a host  by  an  Oriental  guest, 
the  guest  himself  may  be  Orientally  demonstra- 
tive in  his  recognition  of  every  acfl  of  hospitality 
of  which  he  is  the  recipient.  On  one  occasion, 
when  I proffered  a cup  of  coffee  to  an  Egyptian 
Arab  in  my  tent  on  the  desert,  my  guest  accepted 
it  with  graceful  acknowledgments  ; and,  in  drink- 
ing it,  he  sucked  it  into  his  mouth,  sip  by  sip, 
with  a loud  inverted  hiss  at  every  sip,  following 
each  hiss  with  a hearty  ejaculatory  smack  of  his 
lips ; and  when  he  had  sipped  the  last  sip  and 
smacked  the  final  smack,  he  said  to  me  smilingly, 
in  explanation  of  his  demonstrativeness  of  man- 


92 


Studies  hi  Oriental  Social  Life. 


ner  : “When  an  Egyptian  takes  coffee,  he  wants 
to  have  his  satisfaction  heard  1” 

In  some  parts  of  the  East,  as  noted  for  exam- 
ple by  Mr.  Loftie,  when  a guest  rises  from  a 
repast  to  which  he  has  been  invited  he  feels 
called  on  to  make  a show  of  having  eaten  to 
excess,  even  though  he  may  have  partaken  but 
sparingly  of  the  food  before  him.  He  will,  per- 
haps, seem  to  struggle  with  himself  in  order  to 
keep  down  what  he  has  taken  in,  making  sounds 
in  his  throat  that  are  alarmingly  portentous  to  a 
bystander,  while  holding  his  hands  over  his 
mouth,  or  pressing  them  against  himself  in  front 
of  him,  as  if  he  had  little  hope  of  carrying  that 
meal  away  with  him. 

Queer  ways  these ! But  to  the  primitive 
Oriental  they  express  ideas  which,  as  we  view 
it,  find  more  graceful  expression  among  conven- 
tional Occidentals  by  means  of  the  fan  and  the 
smelling-bottle.  And  their  purpose,  after  all,  is 
simply  to  give  emphasis  to  the  high  appreciation 
in  which  hospitality  is  held,  in  the  East,  by  guest 
as  well  as  by  host. 

X'olney,  describing  the  Bed'ween  of  Syria, 
shows  that  open-handed  hospitality  is  the  meas- 


Hospitality  in  the  East. 


93 


ure  of  superiority,  by  which  that  people  test  the 
fitness  of  one  who  would  be  their  ruler.  He  who 
would  be  greatest  among  them  must  be  their 
servant,^  so  far  as  to  provide  unstintedly  for  those 
whom  their  tribe  is  called  to  entertain. 

He  says:  “The  principal  shaik  in  ever)-'  tribe, 
in  facd,  defrays  the  charges  of  all  who  arrive  at  or 
leave  the  camp.  He  receives  the  visits  of  the 
allies  [from  other  tribes],  and  of  every  person 
[in  his  own  tribe]  who  has  business  with  them. 
Adjoining  to  his  tent  is  a large  pavilion  for  the 
reception  of  all  strangers  and  passengers.  There 
are  held  frequent  assemblies  of  the  shaiks  and 
principal  men,  to  determine  on  encampments  and 
removals,  on  peace  and  war  ; . . . and  the  litiga- 
tions and  quarrels  of  individuals.  To  this  crowd, 
which  enters  successively,  he  must  give  coffee, 
bread  baked  on  the  ashes,  rice,  and  sometimes 
roasted  kid  or  camel  ; and  it  is  the  more  impor- 
tant to  him  to  be  generous,  as  this  generosity  is 
closely  connected  with  matters  of  the  greatest 
consequence.  On  the  exercise  of  this  depend 
his  credit  and  his  power. 

“The  famished  Arab  ranks  the  liberality  which 

' Comp.  Matt.  23  : 1 1 and  John  13  : 3-15. 


94 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

feeds  him  before  ever)’  virtue,  nor  is  this  prejudice 
without  foundation,  for  experience  has  proved 
that  covetous  chiefs  never  were  men  of  enlarged 
views  ; hence  a proverb,  as  just  as  it  is  brief,  ‘A 
close  fist,  a narrow  heart.  ’ ” Yet  the  shaykh 
who  has  this  burden  on  him  has  few  advantages 

O 

over  his  fellow  Arabs  in  point  of  worldly  posses- 
sions. He  must  manage  to  give  freely,  whether 
he  receives  anything  from  others  or  not. 

Lady  Anne  Blunt,  visiting  the  patriarchal 
palace  of  Emeer  Muhammad  Ibn  Rashid,  of 
Hail  in  Central  Arabia,  was  shown  by  the 
emeer  his  kitchen  arrangements  for  providing 
for  his  guests,  in  the  exercise  of  his  princely 
hospitality.  “Here,”  she  says,  “with  uncon- 
cealed pride  he  displayed  his  pots  and  pans, 
especially  seven  monstrous  cauldrons,  capable 
each,  he  declared,  of  boiling  three  whole  camels. 
Several  of  them  were  aclually  at  work  ; for  Ibn 
Rashid  entertains  nearly  two  hundred  guests 
daily,  besides  his  own  household.  Forty  sheep 
or  seven  camels  are  his  daily  bill  of  fare.  . . . 
Ever)’  stranger  in  Hail  has  his  place  at  Ibn 
Rashid’s  table.”  And  this  is  consistent  with 
the  idea  of  royal  hospitality  in  the  East. 


Hospitality  in  the  East. 


95 


In  view  of  this  estimate  of  hospitality,  as  a 
measure  of  worth  and  superiority,  prevailing  in 
the  Oriental  mind,  is  it  to  be  wondered  at  that 
the  Apostle  Paul,  in  organizing  the  early  Chris- 
tian churches,  should  say  of  the  chief  officer  of 
those  churches  : “ The  bishop  therefore  must  be 
without  reproach,  . . . given  to  hospitality” 

On  my  landing,  in  the  East,  at  Alexandria,  I 
was  invited  by  an  Alexandrian  merchant  to  be 
a guest  at  his  house.  When  I called  on  him,  as 
he  welcomed  me  into  a large  room  on  the  first 
floor,  and  brought  me  coffee  and  cakes,  he  said, 
“This  room  is  my  hospitality which  was  his 
way  of  saying  “This  is  my  guest-room,  or  guest- 
chamber,”^  as  the  Bible  calls  it.  And  from  that 
time  on,  during  my  stay  in  the  East,  in  Egypt, 
Arabia,  and  Syria,  I found  a guest-chamber  in 
every  house,  and  a guest-house  in  every  village  ; 
while,  as  a rule,  every  tent  of  a nomad  tribe  was 
itself  a guest-tent  as  soon  as  a guest  was  in  sight 
of  it.  And  that  is  the  normal  state  of  things  in 
the  East,  wherever  the  primitive  customs  have 
sway. 

Lieutenant  Lynch  tells  of  the  tenure  by  which 
* I Tim.  3:2.  ^ Mark  14  : 14;  Luke  22  : ii. 


96 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


the  shaykh  of  Semakh,  on  the  east  of  the  Jordan, 
holds  a tracl  of  land  which  he  is  privileged  to 
cultivate.  “The  condition  is  that  he  shall  enter- 
tain all  travelers  who  may  call,  with  a supper, 
and  barley  for  their  horses.”  “ Hospitality,  as 
is  well  known,”  says  Sir  Wilfred  Blunt,  “is  the 
first  and  greatest  of  all  virtues  in  Arab  estima- 
tion.” And  Sir  Richard  Burton,  in  bearing  simi- 
lar witness  to  the  prevalence  of  this  virtue  among 
Arabs,  merely  qualifies  his  statement  by  limiting 
its  present  sway  to  those  now  “rare  traHs  in 
which  the  old  barbarous  hospitality  still  lingers 
where,  in  fadt,  the  chief  virtues  of  primitive 
peoples  have  not  yet  been  destroyed  or  vitiated 
by  contadl  with  civilization  and  its  vices.  What 
is  true,  so  far,  of  the  Arabs,  is  true  of  many 
another  Oriental  people. 

The  Toorkomans  of  Central  Asia,  for  example, 
are  hardly  less  remarkable  than  the  Arabs  for 
this  virtue  of  unselfish  hospitality.  Morier,  who 
visited  among  the  Toorkomans  about  the  time 
of  Burckhardt’s  travels  among  the  Arabs,  says 
of  them:  “Their  hospitality,  the  theme  of  so 
many  pens,  is  not  exaggerated.”  And  \"ambery, 
a more  recent  and  no  less  observant  traveler, 


Hospitality  m the  East. 


97 


illustrates  the  spirit  of  the  Toorkomans  in  this 
particular  by  many  an  incident  of  his  extended 
joLirneyings. 

On  one  occasion  as  he  traveled,  he  came 
with  his  party  upon  an  out-of-the-way  encamp- 
ment of  these  people,  and  was  made  welcome 
in  the  tent  of  one  Allah  Nazr.  “This  old 
Turkoman,”  says  Yambery,  “was  beside  himself 
from  joy  that  Heaven  had  sent  him  guests.  The 
recolledlion  of  that  scene  will  never  pass  from 
my  mind.  In  spite  of  our  protestations  to  the  con- 
trary, he  killed  a goat,  the  only  one  which  he 
possessed,  to  contribute  to  our  entertainment. 
At  a second  meal  which  we  partook  with  him 
the  next  day,  he  found  means  to  procure  bread 
also,  an  article  that  had  not  been  seen  for  weeks 
in  his  dwelling.  While  we  attacked  the  dish  of 
meat,  he  seated  himself  opposite  to  us,  and  wept, 
in  the  exadlest  sense  of  the  expression,  tears 
of  joy.” 

Imagine  that  manifestation  of  feeling  in  one 
of  our  homes,  when  an  added  delegate  to  an 
ecclesiastical  or  missionary  gathering  had  been 
quartered  upon  us  as  a guest ! 

“Allah  Nazr,”  continues  Vamber^^  “would  not 

7 


98  Studies  in  Or'iental  Social  Life. 

retain  any  part  of  the  goat  he  had  killed  in  honor 
of  us.  The  horns  and  hoofs,  which  were  burned 
to  ashes,  and  were  to  be  employed  for  the  galled 
places  on  the  camels,  he  gave  to  I lias  [an  at- 
tendant of  the  guest]  ; but  the  skin,  stripped  off 
in  one  piece,  he  destined  to  serve  as  my  water- 
vessel,  and  after  having  well  rubbed  it  with  salt, 
and  dried  it  in  the  sun,  he  handed  it  over  to  me.” 
Vambery  speaks  also  with  warmth  of  the  spirit 
of  hospitality  among  the  people  of  Eastern 
Turkey.  Other  travelers  lay  special  emphasis 
on  the  prominence  and  the  prevalence  of  this 
virtue  among  the  Khonds,  of  Orissa,  in  India. 
Hunter  says  of  this  people;  “As  soon  as  a 
traveler  enters  a [Khond]  village,  the  heads  of 
families  respedlfully  solicit  him  to  share  their 
meal.  He  may  remain  as  long  as  he  chooses, 
as  [according  to  a Khond  proverb]  a guest  can 
never  be  turned  away.  Fugitives  from  the  field 
of  battle,  and  even  escaped  criminals,  must  be 
hospitably  treated.” 

“For  the  safety  of  a guest,”  runs  another 
Khond  proverb,  “ life  and  honor  are  pledged  ; 
he  is  to  be  considered  before  a child,” — a princi- 
ple illustrated  in  Lot’s  readiness  to  sacrifice  his 


Hospitality  in  the  East. 


99 


daughters  for  the  prote6lion  of  his  guests  in 
Sodomd  Nor  does  this  Oriental  virtue  of  hospi- 
tality cease  to  show  itself  in  a remarkable  degree 
as  a virtue,  even  as  far  east  as  China  and  Japan. 
It  is  the  trait  of  traits  among  the  more  primitive 
peoples  of  all  the  East. 

It  requires  no  argument  to  prove  that  a virtue 
of  this  sort  must  subject  to  imposition  those  who 
exercise  it  unstintingly,  so  long  as  there  are  evil- 
minded  and  designing  persons  in  the  world  ; and 
that  its  exacting  demands  must  press  heavily 
upon  those  who  are  at  the  centers  of  busy  life 
or  along  the  greater  thoroughfares  of  travel.  It 
will,  therefore,  be  readily  understood,  that  in  all 
the  Oriental  world  there  are  those  who  try  to 
make  as  much  as  they  can,  and  those  who  try  to 
lose  as  little  as  they  may,  out  of  this  practical 
virtue  of  Oriental  hospitality. 

Inasmuch  as  every  stranger  is  entitled  to  enter 
any  Arab  home  and  be  entertained  there  for,  say, 
a period  of  three  days,  and  then  to  move  on  to 
the  next  house,  or  tent,  and  spend  a like  period 
there,  it  would  seem  as  if  the  East  must  be  a 
paradise  for  “ tramps.”  And  inasmuch  as  the 
* Gen.  19:8;  see  also  Judg.  19  : 22-24. 


loo  Sticdies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

guest  is  always  entitled  to  the  first  place,  and  to 
the  choicest  fare,  at  the  table  of  his  host,  there  is 
a peculiar  temptation  to  a stranger  to  make  him- 
self a sanest  at  a time  when  a host  has  most  to  be 
shared.  If,  indeed,  it  were  not  for  the  restraints 
of  a rigid  public  sentiment  on  these  points  of 
social  custom  in  the  East,  there  would  be  more 
difficulty  than  there  is  in  keeping  the  causes  of 
trouble  within  bounds  ; but,  even  as  things  are, 
there  are  cases  of  special  hardship  on  the  one 
hand,  and  of  sharp  pradlice  and  shrewd  evasions 
of  the  law  of  fairness  on  the  other  hand. 

Dr.  Edward  Robinson  gives  a good  illustration 
of  one  of  the  perils  of  the  Arab  law  of  hospitality. 
While  in  the  Sinaitic  Peninsula,  accompanied  by 
a trustworthy  band  of  Tawarah  Bed'ween,  he 
bought  a kid  from  a party  of  Arabs  whom  they 
passed  on  the  way,  and  gave  it  to  his  escort,  in 
order  that  they  might  make  merry  with  it  that 
evening,  in  Oriental  style. 

“When  evening  came,”  says  Robinson,  “all 
was  activity  and  bustle  to  prepare  the  coming 
feast.  The  kid  was  killed  and  dressed  with  great 
dexterity  and  dispatch  ; and  its  still  quivering 
members  were  laid  upon  the  fire,  and  began  to 


Hospitality  in  the  East. 


lOI 


emit  savory  odors  particularly  gratifying  to  Arab 
nostrils.  But  now  a change  came  over  the  fair 
scene.  The  Arabs  of  whom  we  had  bought  the 
kid  had  in  some  way  learned  that  we  were  to 
encamp  near  ; and  naturally  enough  concluding 
that  the  kid  was  bought  in  order  to  be  eaten, 
they  thought  good  to  honor  our  Arabs  with  a 
visit,  to  the  number  of  five  or  six  persons. 

“Now  the  stern  law  of  Bedawin  hospitality 
demands,  that  whenever  a guest  is  present  at  a 
meal,  whether  there  be  much  or  little,  the  first 
and  best  portion  must  be  laid  before  the  stranger. 
In  this  instance  the  five  or  six  guests  attained 
their  objedt,  and  had  not  only  the  selling  of  the 
kid  but  also  the  eating  of  it ; while  our  poor 
Arabs,  whose  mouths  had  long  been  watering 
with  expectation,  were  forced  to  take  up  with 
the  fragments.  Besharah  [the  chief  guide],  who 
played  the  host,  fared  worst  of  all,  and  came 
afterwards  to  beg  for  a biscuit,  saying  he  had 
lost  the  whole  of  his  dinner.” 

An  Arab  proverb  cited  by  Burckhardt,  to  the 
effect  that  “ those  who  give  the  wedding  feast 
sigh  for  the  broth,”  seems  to  be  based  upon  this 
peril  of  hospitality.  Possibly  there  is  a survival 


102  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

of  this  Oriental  state  of  things  in  the  modern 
“donation  party”  sometimes  given  to  a country 
minister,  at  which  the  guests  bring  the  eatables, 
count  them  on  the  minister’s  salar)^,  and  then 
devour  them. 

It  is  instructive  to  see  how  well  an  Arab  will 
control  himself  when  he  is  being  imposed  . on  by 
the  laws  of  hospitality.  And  an  Oriental  has 
wonderful  power  in  this  direction.  Burton  says 
on  this  point : “Shame  is  a passion  with  Eastern 
nations.  Your  host  would  blush  to  point  out  to 
you  the  indecorum  of  your  condubt  ; and  the  laws 
of  hospitality  oblige  him  to  supply  the  ever^^ 
want  of  a guest.” 

My  own  traveling  party  on  the  way  through 
Palestine  halted  for  lunch,  one  midday,  near  the 
plain  of  ancient  Dothan,  where  young  Joseph 
was  sold  by  his  brethren  to  the  Midianitish  mer- 
chantmen. Hardly  was  our  lunch  spread,  when 
hurrying  down  a hillside  near  us  came  a man,  a 
woman,  and  a boy,  of  the  native  fellaheen  or 
peasantry,  making  toward  our  halting-place  as 
though  their  lives  depended  on  their  speed. 
The  dragoman,  who  was  sharing  his  meal  with 
the  chief  muleteer  of  our  party,  saw  the  danger, 


Hospitality  in  the  East. 


103 

and  said  to  his  companion,  “ Eat  quickly.  They 
are  coming.”  But  before  many  mouthfuls  could 
be  taken,  the  visitors  were  at  hand.  The  woman, 
according  to  custom,  passed  on,  and  seated  her- 
self on  a rock  at  a respectful  distance,  with  her 
face  turned  away  from  our  party  ; while  the  two 
men  presented  themselves  to  our  attendants. 

The  dragoman  arose,  and  with  all  the  suavity 
and  gracefulness  with  which  an  American  society 
woman  would  greet  an  unwelcome  visitor,  bowed 
and  said,  '"Tfuddal" — “Please,”  or  “Welcome.” 
“ I am  your  guest,”  responded  the  stranger  ; “ I 
and  my  brother’s  son.”  Then  the  two  guests 
took  hold  of  the  lunch,  while  the  dragoman  and 
the  muleteer  watched  complacently  the  skilful 
work  of  the  visitors,  absorbed  as  they  were  in  the 
occupation  of  the  moment. 

It  will  be  understood  that  where  an  Oriental 
lives  at  a center  of  travel  he  is  peculiarly  liable 
to  imposition  through  calls  on  his  hospitality. 
Philadelphians  who  have  survived  the  series  of 
centennials  celebrated  in  that  city  within  the 
past  twenty  years,  as  also  the  Chicagoans  with 
their  more  recent  experiences,  will  therefore  be 
quite  ready  to  believe  that  at  such  a city  as 


104 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


Meccah  there  are  residents  to  whom  the  enter- 
taining of  guests  becomes  something  more  than 
a delightful  novelty. 

They  have,  indeed,  a tradition  at  Meccah  of 
an  old  shaykh  in  that  vicinity  whose  experience 
was  sadly  representative  in  this  line.  They  say 
that  he  worshiped  God  zealously, ^and  performed 
his  prayers  and  ablutions  five  times  a day,  while 
being  hospitable  to  all.  But  a Turk  who  was  his 
guest  ran  away  with  his  wife  ; a Persian  guest 
stole  his  horse ; an  Egyptian  guest  stole  his 
camel ; a Moorish  guest  stole  his  ass  ; and  so 
thinsi's  went  on — or  went  off — until  the  grood  old 
man  was  utterly  destitute.  Then  a Hindoo  pil- 
grim came  along,  and  abused  the  shaykh  because 
he  had  nothing  left  worth  stealing.  This  was 
too  much  for  the  long-suffering  shaykh.  He 
turned  and  killed  his  reviler  ; and  in  the  ragged 
cloth  around  his  victim’s  loins  he  found  a hoard 
of  gold.  The  obvious  moral — if  you  can  call  it 
a “moral” — of  this  tradition  is,  that  hospitality 
is  not  always  sure  to  pay  so  well  as  its  opposite. 

Public  sentiment  in  the  East,  however,  enjoins 
some  of  the  guards  against  a life  of  useless  idle- 
ness which  are  found  to  work  well  in  our  Occi- 


Hospitality  in  the  East. 


105 


dental  organizations  for  the  systematizing  of 
charities.  In  case  a guest  seems  disposed  to 
prolong  his  stay  beyond  the  “ three  days  of 
grace,”  his  host  will  suggest  to  him,  on  the 
morning  of  the  fourth  day,  that,  as  he  is  now 
one  of  the  family,  there  is  such  and  such  house- 
hold work  to  be  done,  in  which  he  can  bear  his 
part ; and  so  he  is  set  at  work  for  his  living.^ 

With  human  nature  as  it  is,  it  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at  that  there  are  Orientals  who  abuse 
the  privileges  of  hospitality ; or,  again,  that  there 
are  Orientals  who  chafe  under  the  obligations 
and  responsibilities  of  hospitality.  The  wonder 
is  that  Orientals,  being  human,  are  so  generally 
true  to  the  letter  and  to  the  spirit  of  their  un- 
written law  of  hospitality,  in  all  that  it  imposes 
upon  them  of  an  unselfish  ministry  to  others. 

There  is,  moreover,  something  in  this  Oriental 
law  of  hospitality  which  goes  deeper  than  the 
mere  duty  of  providing  sustenance  to  those  who 
are  in  bodily  want.  It  involves  and  carries  with 
it  the  covenanting  of  peace  and  friendship,  in  the 
sharing  of  a common  meal ; and  beyond  this  it 
includes  the  giving  of  an  asylum  to  all  those  who 


* Mark  6 : 10. 


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Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


require  proteclion,  however  unworthy  they  may 
be.  These  two  phases  of  sentiment  are  often 
confused  by  observers  of  Oriental  customs,  and 
they  are  not  always  recognized  in  their  distinbl- 
ness  by  the  Orientals  themselves.  Yet  they  are 
by  no  means  one  and  the  same  thing. 

The  sharing  of  food  or  of  drink  with  another 
is  a symbol  of  covenanting,  among  the  Orientals, 
as  among  all  primitive  peoples.  To  give  even 
a cup  of  cold  water  to  a stranger,^  in  the  East, 
is  to  proffer  recognition  to  the  stranger  as  one 
worthy  of  reception.  To  ask  a cup  of  water  of 
a stranger,  is  to  ask  to  be  received  on  terms  of 
peace  and  good-will.  When  Eliezer,  the  servant 
of  Abraham,  went  as  a stranger  among  his  mas- 
ter’s kinsfolk  in  Mesopotamia,  he  sought  a wel- 
come, at  the  well  outside  of  the  city,  by  saying 
to  the  maiden  who  came  thither  to  draw  water, 
“Give  me  to  drink,  I pray  thee,  a little  water  of 
thy  pitcher.”  When  she  replied,  “ Drink,  my 
lord,”  it  was  a sign  that  he  was  welcome  there.^ 

When  Jesus,  at  Jacob’s  well,  said  to  a woman 
of  Samaria,  “Give  me  to  drink,”  she  wondered 
that  a man  of  the  haughty  Jewish  race  should 
* Matt.  lo  : 42  ; Mark  9 : 41.  ^ Gen.  24  : 10-21. 


Hospitality  in  the  East.  107 

be  willing  to  invite  recognition  and  favor  from  a 
woman  of  the  despised  Samaritan  stock ; and 
her  rejoinder  was  : “ How  is  it  that  thou,  being 
a Jew,  askest  drink  of  me,  which  am  a Samaritan 
woman  ? ” ^ 

Bruce,  the  traveler,  while  in  Upper  Egypt,  re- 
fused for  a while  to  share  coffee  with  an  Arab 
leader  with  whom  he  was  at  variance  concern- 
ing an  important  matter,  because  their  drinking 
together  would  be  proof  of  their  amity.  When, 
after  some  discussion,  the  Arab  asked  for  a drink 
of  the  coffee,  and  it  was  given  him,  he  said  confi- 
dently, “ Now  the  past  is  past.”  Having  drunk 
together  they  were  in  friendship  again. 

When  I entered  Palestine  by  way  of  the  Negeb, 
or  South  Country,  while  guided  by  the  Teeyahah 
Bed'ween,  I found  the  principal  well  at  Beersheba 
surrounded  by  a motley  crowd  of  the  quarrelsome 
’Azazimeh  Bed'ween,  watering  their  camels.  My 
cautious  Moorish  dragoman  warned  me  not  to 
venture  among  these  “wild  ’Azazimeh,”  as  he 
called  them  ; but,  in  my  recklessness,  I rushed 
in  where  angels  might  not  have  trodden  ; and, 
all  unconsciously  on  my  part,  I thereby  put  my- 
1 John  4 : 5-9. 


io8  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

self  upon  their  hospitality  before  they  could  find 
time  to  warn  me  off,  as  I learned  afterwards 
they  were  accustomed  to  treat  strangers.  As 
soon  as  I was  within  their  circle,  I was  asked  why 
I did  not  ask  for  a drink  of  water,  if  I wished 
to  be  received  as  a friend.  Thereupon  I repeated 
the  Oriental  request  of  the  ages,  “ Give  me  to 
drink  ; ” and  when  I had  drunk  from  one  of  their 
buckets  I was  welcomed  as  a friend. 

A drink  of  water  is  the  simplest  form  of  pledg- 
ing amity.  It  is  the  primitive  symbol  of  hospi- 
tality, with  its  covenant  of  protection  to  the  guest. 
Beyond  this,  the  sharing  of  food,  which  is  also 
an  acd  of  hospitality,  has  been  and  is,  in  the  East 
and  elsewhere,  a mode  of  covenanting  to  peace 
and  fidelity.  When  Abimelech,  at  the  head  of 
the  nomad  tribes  on  the  south  of  Palestine — the 
’Azazimeh  of  the  patriarchal  days  — came  seek- 
ing a permanent  covenant  with  Isaac,  near  the 
well  of  Beersheba,  Isaac  “ made  them  a feast, 
and  they  did  eat  and  drink.”  And  then  it  was 
that  their  covenant  of  peace  was  confirmed.^ 

When  Jacob  and  Laban  had  differed,  and  were 
newly  in  accord,  they  cemented  their  restored 
‘ Gen.  26  : 26-33. 


Hospitality  in  the  East. 


109 


friendship  by  eating  together  on  the  heap  of 
stones  which  they  had  raised  as  a memorial  of 
the  covenant^  Under  the  Levitical  law,  the 
sacrifice  of  “peace  offering,”  or  the  “sacrifice 
of  completion,”  as  it  has  been  called,  whereby 
restored  or  completed  covenant  relations  with 
their  God  were  indicated  by  the  Israelites,  was 
an  offering  of  which  the  offerer  himself  partook, 
as  if  he  were  sharing  the  covenant  hospitality 
of  his  God.'"^  And  this  has  been  the  idea  of 
sacrificial  feasts  all  the  world  over  in  all  the 
ages.  A place  at  the  table  of  a Divine  host  has 
been  a pledge  of  Divine  prote6fion  to  the  guest. 

When  the  Gibeonites  came  to  the  people  of 
Israel  seeking  a covenant  of  amity,  in  the  days 
of  Joshua,  it  is  said  that  the  Israelites  “took 
of  their  provision,  and  asked  not  counsel  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Lord,” — covenanted  with  them 
without  asking  the  Lord’s  permission.  But 
having  thus  covenanted  with  the  Gibeonites, 
even  though  inconsiderately,  the  Israelites  felt 
bound  to  adhere  to  the  letter  of  their  covenant.”* 

Obadiah  of  Samaria  wanted  Elijah  to  recog- 

* Gen.  31  : 43-49.  ^ Lev.  3 : 1-17  ; 7 : 15  ; Deut.  27  ; 7. 

’Josh.  9 : 3-27. 


1 1 o Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

nize  him  as  in  covenant  relations  with  Jehovah, 
because  he  had  given  bread  and  water  to  the 
persecuted  prophets  of  Jehovah.  And  this  view 
of  the  potency  and  sacredness  of  a covenant 
made  by  the  sharing  of  bread  and  water  with 
another^  prevails  in  the  East,  to-day  as  always. 

Dr.  Cyrus  Hamlin,  long  an  American  mission- 
ary in  Turkey,  was  sitting  at  meat  with  a Turkish 
governor,  when  the  latter  took  a piece  of  roast 
mutton  in  his  fingers  and  politely  passed  it  to 
the  missionar)^  “ Now  do  you  know  what  I have 
done?”  asked  the  governor.  “ Perfedlly  well,” 
replied  the  missionary.  “You  have  given  me  a 
delicious  piece  of  roast  meat,  and  I have  eaten 
it.”  “You  have  gone  far  from  it  [have  missed 
its  real  meaning],”  said  the  governor.  “ By  that 
acd  I have  pledged  you  every  drop  of  my  blood, 
that  while  you  are  in  my  territory  no  evil  shall 
come  to  you.  For  that  space  of  time  we  are 
brothers.” 

Dr.  William  M.  Thomson,  a missionary  for 
many  years  in  Syria,  gives  a similar  illustration 
from  his  experience  among  the  Bed'ween  of 
Palestine,  not  far  from  the  point  where  I was 

’ I Kings  i8  : 3-16. 


Hospitality  in  the  East. 


1 1 1 


entertained  in  a Bed'wy  shaykh’s  tent.  The 
shaykh  brought  fresh  bread  and  grape  molasses, 
and  dipping  a bit  of  bread  in  the  molasses  he 
gave  it  to  the  missionary  to  eat.  After  this  he 
gave  other  bits  to  other  members  of  the  mis- 
sionary’s party.  Then  he  said:  “We  are  now 
brethren.  There  is  bread  and  salt  between  us. 
We  are  brothers  and  allies.  You  are  at  liberty 
to  travel  among  us  wherever  you  please ; and,  so 
far  as  my  power  extends,  I am  to  aid,  befriend, 
and  succor  you,  even  to  the  loss  of  my  life.” 

Major  Conder  sums  up  the  case  for  the  nomads 
of  Palestine  and  its  surrounding  regions  in  the 
general  statement:  “The  Bedawin  are  very 

trustworthy ; they  keep  their  promises  honorably, 
and  their  law  of  hospitality  is  stridlly  and  chival- 
rously observed.  The  murder  of  a guest  who 
has  eaten  salt  in  their  camp  is,  I believe,  almost 
unknown.  . . . The  life  of  any  European  is  . . . 
probably  quite  as  safe  among  the  Arabs  as  in 
London.”  Similar  testimony  is  borne  to  the 
fidelity  of  Oriental  hosts  in  the  implied  covenant 
of  giving  bread  to  a guest,  by  travelers  in  the 
East  from  Mongolia  to  Abyssinia. 

The  element  of  salt  in  the  covenant,  referred 


1 1 2 Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

to  by  Thomson  and  Conder  and  other  Eastern 
travelers,  gives  additional  potency  to  a covenant 
of  hospitality  beyond  the  use  of  bread  ; although 
this  distincdion  is  not  always  perceived  either  by 
the  Occidental  observer  or  by  the  Oriental  enter- 
tainer. The  potency  is  in  the  primitive  significa- 
tion of  salt  as  a symbol  of  life.  A “covenant 
of  salt,”  like  a covenant  of  blood,  is  an  unalter- 
able covenant.  It  is  so  indicated  in  its  employ- 
ment between  the  Lord  and  the  house  of  Aaron, ^ 
and,  again,  between  the  Lord  and  the  house  of 
David. ^ 

To  give  a drink  a water  to  a guest  is  to  recog- 
nize him  as  worthy  of  a peaceable  reception. 
To  share  food  with  another  is  to  covenant  with 
him  in  amity  for  the  period  of  his  stay  as  a guest 
in  the  domain  of  the  host.  To  partake  of  salt 
with  another  is  to  enter  into  a brotherhood  as 
of  very  life  with  him.  All  these  fa6lors  are  in- 
cluded, severally  or  colledlively,  in  the  Oriental 
idea  of  hospitality. 

But  beyond  all  these  there  is  another  element 
in  Oriental  hospitality,  which  is  deeper  and  more 
far  reaching  than  them  all,  and  which  is  obviously 
* Num.  i8  : 8,  19.  ^2  Chron.  13:5. 


Hospitality  hi  the  East.  1 1 3 

based  upon  a profounder  sentiment  of  man’s 
religious  nature.  This  element  is  what  may  be 
called  the  idea  of  “sandluary,” — which  secures 
to  a guest  a protedlion  by  his  host,  even  though 
all  the  prejudices  and  personal  interests  of  the 
host,  as  well  as  the  apparent  claims  of  justice, 
unite  to  the  refusing  of  an  asylum  to  the  per- 
son seeking  it.  And  there  is,  in  my  opinion, 
no  more  remarkable  feature  in  any  primitive 
custom  than  just  this  feature  of  Oriental  hospi- 
tality. 

“What  is  there,”  asks  Volney,  “more  noble 
than  that  right  of  asylum  so  respedled  among 
all  the  tribes  ? A stranger,  nay  even  an  enemy, 
touches  the  tent  of  the  Bedoui,  and  from  that 
instant  his  person  becomes  inviolable.  It  would 
be  reckoned  a disgraceful  meanness,  an  indelible 
shame,  to  satisfy  even  a just  vengeance  at  the 
expense  of  hospitality.  . . . The  power  of  the 
Sultan  himself  would  not  be  able  to  force  a 
refugee  [that  is,  a guest  imploring  protedlion, 
or  seeking  sandluary]  from  the  protedlion  of  a 
tribe,  but  by  its  total  extermination.” 

Volney,  indeed,  cites  the  case  of  a rebellious 

agha  from  Damascus,  who  took  refuge  among 

8 


1 1 4 Studies  m Oriental  Social  Life. 

the  Druses  (in  the  Lebanon  region),  and  who 
was  demanded  by  the  emeer  from  Shaykh  Tal- 
houk,  whose  hospitality  the  agha  had  sought. 
The  reply  of  the  shaykh  was  : “When  have  you 
known  the  Druses  deliver  up  their  guests  ? Tell 
the  emeer  that,  as  long  as  Talhouk  shall  pre- 
serve his  beard,  not  a hair  of  the  head  of  his 
suppliant  [his  refugee-guest]  shall  fall.”  After 
trying  other  threats,  the  emeer  declared  that  he 
would  cut  down  fifty  mulberry  trees  a day,  until 
the  shaykh  surrendered  his  guest.  The  mul- 
berry trees  were  the  main  support  of  the  tribe  ; 
but  their  destrudlion  would  not  induce  the  Druses 
to  violate  the  right  of  sanftuary.  When  the 
emeer  had  cut  down  a thousand  trees,  other 
tribes  were  aroused  in  defense  of  Shaykh  Tal- 
houk, and  the  commotion  became  general.  Then 
it  was  that  the  fugitive  agha  reproached  himself 
with  the  trouble  he  was  causing,  and  fled  else- 
where to  avoid  being  the  ruin  of  his  faithful 
hosts. 

Burckhardt  wrote  of  this  same  people,  the 
Druses  : “I  am  satisfied  that  no  consideration 
of  interest  or  power  will  induce  a Druse  to  give 
up  a person  who  has  once  placed  himself  under 


Hospitality  in  the  East.  1 1 5 

his  proteClion.  . . . The  mighty  Djezzar  [a  blood- 
thirsty pasha  of  Acre  and  Sidon,  of  a century 
ago],  who  had  invested  his  own  creatures  with 
the  government  of  the  mountains  [where  the 
Druses  live],  never  could  force  them  to  give  up 
a single  individual  of  all  those  who  fled  hither 
from  his  tyranny.”  Of  other  tribes  than  the 
Druses,  Lady  Blunt  testifies:  “A  stranger  once 
within  an  Anazeh  or  Shammar  camp,  unless  he 
be  a declared  enemy,  the  member  of  a hostile 
tribe,  is  secure  from  all  molestation  ; and  even  an 
enemy,  if  he  have  once  dismounted  and  touched 
the  rope  of  a single  tent,  is  safe.” 

Dr.  Hamlin  tells  of  a time  when  his  own 
life  was  saved  from  the  fury  of  a native  mob 
in  Adabazar  by  the  courage  and  fidelity  of  his 
Turkish  hotel  host,  who  risked  his  own  life  to 
secure  safety  to  his  guest.  When,  in  this  in- 
stance, Dr.  Hamlin  was  fairly  beyond  the  reach 
of  the  mob,  his  Turkish  host  said  to  him  : “ Now 
you  have  an  open  plain,  and  your  horse  is  enough 
for  your  safety.  1 give  you  into  God’s  keeping.” 
Says  Dr.  Hamlin  : “ I had  not  fully  compre- 

hended the  spirit  in  which  he  had  done  this,  and 
I offered  him  a reward,  ‘bakshish.’  He  seemed 


1 1 6 Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

offended,  and  refused,  saying  proudly,  ‘ I am  a 
Mussulman  ! I have  not  done  this  for  money.’  ” 
Yet  this  was  only  a Turkish  hotel  keeper  ! 
Could  we  not  admit  a few  of  this  sort  to  America, 
duty  free?  No  wonder  that  Dr.  Hamlin  adds 
earnestly,  “The  duties  of  hospitality  are  among 
the  most  sacred  of  the  Oriental  world.” 

Stranofest  of  all  is  the  hold  which  this  sane- 
tuary  phase  of  hospitality  has  over  the  Oriental 
mind  when  it  comes  in  conflicl;  with  the  duty  of 
blood-avenging,  or  of  justice-meting  ; for  in  the 
Oriental  mind  blood-avenging  is  simply  conform- 
ing to  the  demand  of  justice.  When  a man  has 
slain  another,  it  is,  as  the  Oriental  sees  it,  the 
imperative  duty  of  the  relatives  of  the  murdered 
man  to  pursue  the  murderer  relentlessly  until  his 
blood,  or  its  agreed  price,  be  given  as  an  equiva- 
lent of  the  life  that  he  has  taken.  This  has  been 
the  law  of  the  East  from  the  very  earliest  ages. 
“Whoso  sheddeth  man’s  blood,  by  man  shall  his 
blood  be  shed,”  is  the  recorded  command  of  God 
to  Noah  and  his  sons,  on  their  beginning  life 
anew  after  the  Deluge.  ^ And  from  that  day  to 
this,  throughout  all  the  East,  man  has  recognized 
* Gen.  9 ; 6. 


Hospitality  in  the  East.  1 1 7 

it  as  his  duty  to  avenge  the  blood  of  a murdered 
relative,  as  he  would  be  true  to  his  God.  But  if 
a murderer  enters  the  tent  of  the  avenger  of 
blood  who  is  seeking  his  life,  the  law  of  Oriental 
hospitality  requires  that  the  right  of  sancfluary 
shall  be  accorded  to  him,  in  spite  of  the  forfeiture 
of  his  life  by  his  crime. 

Volney  cites  from  an  old  Arabic  manuscript  an 
incident  in  illustration  of  this  truth.  In  the  time 
of  the  Khaleefs,  a murderer  flying  from  justice 
came,  without  knowing  it,  to  the  house  of  a son 
of  the  man  whom  he  had  murdered,  and  was 
there  welcomed  as  a guest.  After  a while  it  was 
disclosed  to  the  son  that  the  murderer  of  his 
father,  whose  life  he  had  been  seeking,  was  his 
guest.  The  guest  admitted  the  crime,  and  was 
ready  to  meet  his  doom.  “ A violent  trembling 
then  seized  the  rich  man,”  continues  the  story  ; 
“ his  teeth  chattered,  his  eyes  alternately  sparkled 
with  fury  and  overflowed  with  tears.  ...  At 
length,  turning  to  Ibraheem  [the  murderer- 
guest], — ‘To-morrow,  said  he,  [that  is,  soon,  at 
the  farthest,]  ‘ destiny  shall  join  thee  to  my 
father,  and  God  will  have  retaliated.  But  as  for 
me,  how  can  I violate  the  sacred  laws  of  hospi- 


1 1 8 Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

tality  ? Wretched  stranger,  fly  from  my  pres- 
ence ! There,  take  these  hundred  sequins.  Be 
gone  quickly,  and  let  me  never  behold  thee 
more.” 

In  Tully’s  “ Narrative  of  a Ten  Years’  Resi- 
dence at  Tripoli,”  there  is  given  an  authentic 
instance  of  like  fidelity  to  the  san6luar^'  obliga- 
tions of  hospitality,  in  that  portion  of  Arabic 
Africa.  A chief  of  a party  of  troops  in  the 
service  of  the  ruling  family  of  Tripoli,  while 
pursued  by  Arabs,  lost  his  way,  and  was  over- 
taken by  night  near  the  enemy’s  camp.  Coming 
upon  a tent  he  entered  it  boldly,  and  by  that 
very  act  he  was  under  protedlion  as  a guest.  As 
he  talked  pleasantly  with  his  host,  in  the  inter- 
change of  stories  concerning  the  exploits  of  their 
people,  he  noticed  a sudden  paleness  cover  the 
face  of  his  host,  who  at  once  left  the  presence  of 
his  guest,  and  soon  after  sent  word  that  he  was 
unable  to  return,  but  had  made  every  provision 
for  his  guest’s  safety  and  repose. 

Before  daylight  the  next  morning,  the  guest 
was  aroused,  and  invited  to  take  refreshment,  in 
preparation  for  his  departure.  At  the  entrance 
of  the  tent  stood  a fresh  horse  in  exchange  for 


Hospitality  in  the  East.  1 19 

his  exhausted  one,  all  ready  for  his  mounting. 
There  also  stood  his  host,  holding  the  stirrup  for 
him  as  he  mounted,  in  accordance  with  Arab 
etiquette.  When  the  guest  was  in  his  saddle,  the 
host  told  him  that  the  benighted  wayfarer  had 
no  enemy  so  much  to  be  dreaded  as  the  man 
whose  tent  he  had  entered. 

“ ‘Last  night,’  said  he,  ‘ in  the  exploits  of  your 
ancestors  you  discovered  to  me  the  murderer  of 
my  father.  There  lie  all  the  habits  he  was  slain 
in  [which  were  at  that  moment  brought  to  the 
door  of  the  tent],  over  which,  in  the  presence  of 
my  family,  I have  many  times  sworn  to  revenge 
his  death,  and  to  seek  the  blood  of  his  murderer 
from  sunrise  to  sunset.  The  sun  has  not  yet 
risen  ; the  sun  will  be  no  more  than  risen  when 
I pursue  you,  after  you  have  in  safety  quitted  my 
tent,  where,  fortunately  for  you,  it  is  against  our 
religion  to  molest  you,  after  your  having  sought 
my  prote6lion  and  found  a refuge  there  ; but  all 
my  obligations  cease  as  soon  as  we  part,  and 
from  that  moment  you  must  consider  me  as  one 
determined  on  your  destruction,  in  whatever  part 
[of  the  country]  or  at  whatever  distance  we  may 
meet  again.  You  have  not  mounted  a horse  in- 


120  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

ferior  to  the  one  that  stands  ready  for  myself; 
on  its  swiftness  surpassing  that  of  mine  depends 
one  of  our  lives  or  both.’” 

Profiting  by  the  start  thus  given  him,  the 
guest  was  enabled  to  reach  the  Bey’s  army  in 
safety,  although  his  pursuer  was  close  behind 
him  as  he  neared  that  camp.  And  this  generous 
aCl  of  the  host,  says  the  English  narrator,  was 
“ no  more  than  every  Arab  and  every  Moor  in 
the  same  circumstances  would  do.” 

Of  the  primitive  Khonds  in  India,  a similar 
story  is  told  by  Hunter:  “A  man  belonging  to 
one  of  the  miserable  low  castes  who  are  attached 
to  the  Kandh  hamlets  killed  the  son  of  the  vil- 
lage patriarch,  and  fled.  Two  years  afterwards 
he  suddenly  rushed  one  night  into  the  house  of 
the  bereaved  father.  The  indignant  patriarch 
with  difficulty  held  his  hand  from  the  trembling 
wretch,  and  convened  a council  of  the  tribe  to 
know  how  he  might  lawfully  take  revenge.  But 
the  assembly  decided  that,  however  grievously 
the  refugee  had  wronged  his  host,  he  was  now 
his  guest,  and  must  be  kept  by  him  in  comfort, 
and  unharmed.” 

Warburton  gives  another  incident  in  this  line, 


Hospitality  in  the  East. 


I 2 I 


from  the  days  of  the  conflidl  in  Egypt  between 
the  Mamlook  Beys  and  Muhammad  Alee  in  the 
early  part  of  this  century.  A Bed'wy  shaykh  was 
seeking  the  life  of  Elfy  Bey,  the  deadly  enemy  of 
his  friend  and  ally  Osman.  During  the  absence 
of  the  shaykh  from  his  tent,  Elfy  Bey  entered  it 
boldly,  and  hastily  ate  some  bread  which  he 
found  there.  The  shaykh’s  wife,  recognizing  the 
stranger  guest,  said:  “I  know  you,  Elfy  Bey,  and 
my  husband’s  life,  perhaps,  at  this  moment 
depends  upon  his  taking  yours.  Rest  now  and 
refresh  yourself ; then  take  the  best  horse  you 
can  find,  and  fly.  The  moment  you  are  out  of 
our  horizon,  and  the  sun  is  above  it,  the  tribe 
will  be  in  pursuit  of  you.” 

When  this  story  reached  the  ears  of  Osman,  he 
demanded  of  the  old  shaykh  if  his  wife  had  really 
saved  the  life  of  their  deadliest  foe.  “ Most  true, 
praised  be  Allah ! ’ replied  the  shaykh,  drawing 
himself  proudly  up,  and  presenting  a jewel-hilted 
dagger  to  the  old  bey.  ‘This  weapon,’  he  con- 
tinued, ‘ was  your  gift  to  me  in  the  hour  of  your 
favor.  Had  I met  Elfy  Bey,  it  should  have  freed 
you  from  your  enemy.  Had  my  wife  betrayed 
the  hospitality  of  the  tent,  it  should  have  drank 


1 2 2 Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

her  blood  ! Now  it  is  yours  again.  If  you  will, 
you  may  use  it  against  me.’  And  the  Arab  flung 
it  at  the  Mameluke’s  feet.” 

“This  reverence  for  hospitality,”  adds  War- 
burton,  “ is  one  of  the  wild  virtues  that  has  sur- 
vived from  the  days  of  the  patriarchs.”  And 
he  is  right.  It  is  clearly  a survival  of  better 
days,  not  a mark  of  progress  upward  from  a 
lower  and  baser  moral  plane.  A sentiment  that 
induces  a course  of  personal  aftion  at  variance 
with  one’s  personal  interests,  with  one’s  personal 
passions,  and  with  one’s  personal  view  of  abso- 
lute justice,  in  accordance  with  one’s  convidlion 
that  that  course  is  the  right  course  for  a repre- 
sentative of  a higher  Power  than  a purely  hu- 
man one,  can  hardly  be  looked  at  as  a sentiment 
inherent  in  a mere  animal  nature  uninfluenced 
by  considerations  beyond  and  above  itself. 

There  is  a survival  of  this  Oriental  idea  of  the 
sacred  claim  of  hospitality,  as  superior  to  the 
demands  of  personal  vengeance  or  of  religious 
prejudices,  in  the  traditions  of  the  Irish  people, 
among  whom  so  many  Eastern  customs  are  pre- 
served. One  of  these  traditions  is  embodied 
in  an  Irish  ballad  by  Gerald  Griffin,  entitled 


Hospitality  in  the  East. 


123 


“ Orangfe  and  Green.”  A Roman  Catholic  who 
had  killed  an  Orangeman  sought  shelter  in  an 
Orangeman’s  cottage.  It  was  soon  found  that 
the  murdered  man  was  the  son  of  the  murderer’s 
host  ; but  the  Orangeman  was  true  to  the  obli- 
gations of  hospitality,  and  he  sheltered  the  mur- 
derer for  the  night,  and  in  the  morning  sent  him 
on  his  way  in  peace. 

Twenty  years  after  this,  the  hospitable  Orange- 
man was  in  the  hands  of  the  Romanists  in  peril 
of  his  life.  His  long-ago  guest  recognized  him, 
and  interposed  for  his  protection.  When  the 
populace  learned  the  story  of  the  faithful  host, 
their  Irish  hearts  commended  him: 

“ Now  pressed  the  warm  beholders 
Their  aged  foe  to  greet ; 

They  raised  him  on  their  shoulders 
And  chaired  him  through  the  street. 

“ As  he  had  saved  that  stranger 
From  peril  scowling  dim, 

So  in  his  day  of  danger 

Did  Heaven  remember  him.” 

The  faH  that  the  primitive  Oriental  sentiment 
of  hospitality  has  its  basis  in  a religious  convic- 
tion, rather  than  in  any  utilitarian  view  of  the 
mutual  advantages  resulting  from  such  helpful 


124 


Studies  in  Oj'iental  Social  Life. 


pra61ices  among  men,  finds  confirmation  in  the 
terms  by  which  they  speak  of  themselves  and  of 
strangers  as  alike  the  “guests  of  God,”  dwelling 
in  tents  where  God  is  the  host,  and  where  all  who 
are  God’s  are  entitled  to  be  sharers  together. 

The  Rev.  William  Ewing,  a Scotch  missionary 
in  Palestine,  who  has  been  much  among  the 
Arabs  of  the  Hauran  and  El-Leja  on  the  east  of 
the  Jordan,  where  the  primitive  customs  of  the 
people  are  far  better  preserved  than  among  those 
tribes  who  see  more  of  civilization  with  its  heart- 
deadening  influences,  testifies  explicitly  as  to  the 
force  of  this  sentiment. 

“ A beautiful  idea  possesses  the  minds  of  these 
dwellers  in  waste  places,”  he  says.  “ It  is  that 
they  are  all  ‘ the  guests  of  God  ’ — duyif  UllaJi — 
spending  life’s  brief  day  under  the  blue  canopy 
of  God’s  great  tent  ; all  they  need  being  freely 
given  by  him, — the  Generous,  the  Bountiful. 
When  nigfhtfall  brings  the  traveler,  lone  and 
weary,  to  his  tent,  the  Bed'wy  sees  in  him  ‘ a 
guest  of  God,’  to  be  treated  as  God  has  dealt 
with  himself ; to  whom,  therefore,  his  tent  and  all 
he  has  must  be  free  ; against  whom,  even  if  he 
be  an  enemy,  no  hand  must  be  raised,  for  two 


Hospitality  in  the  East. 


125 


nights  and  a day — or  while  he  may  retain  a par- 
ticle of  food  partaken  of  as  a guest.” 

Doughty,  one  of  the  freshest  and  most  obser- 
vant of  travelers,  gives  similar  testimony.  Speak- 
ing of  the  “ houses  of  hair  ” in  Arabia  Deserta, 
he  says ; “These  Hitting  houses  in  the  wilderness, 
dwelt  in  by  robbers,  are  also  santluaries  of  God’s 
guests,  thefif  UUah.  the  passengers  and  who  they 
be  that  haply  alight  before  them.  ...  ‘ Be  we 
not  all,’  say  the  poor  nomads,  ‘guests  of  Ullah?' 
Has  God  given  unto  them,  God’s  guest  shall 
partake  with  them  thereof : if  they  will  not  for 
God  render  his  own,  it  should  not  go  well  with 
them.” 

This  idea  clearly  comes  from  above,  not  from 
below.  It  is  not  evolved  from  man’s  inner  con- 
sciousness, but  it  has,  in  some  way  and  at  some 
time,  been  revealed  to  man  as  a truth,  in  cease- 
less conflibl  with  the  promptings  of  mere  human 
selfishness,  and  in  perfebl  consonance  with  the 
teachings  of  the  divine  Word  that  rests  the 
brotherhood  of  man  on  the  fatherhood  of  God. 
This  idea  makes  every  host  and  every  guest  alike 
a representative  of  God. 

The  primeval  type  of  religion  shows  every 


126  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

home  a sanctuary,  and  the  head  of  every  home  a 
priest  of  God  in  that  sancduary.  When,  there- 
fore, a stranger  seeks  refuge  in  a home-sanCtuary 
he  must  be  recognized  as  seeking  God’s  protec- 
tion there  ; and  he  who  ministers  there  for  God 
must  not  deny  the  refugee  a sanctuary  because 
of  the  opposition  of  his  personal  interests  or  pas- 
sions. Blood-avenging  is,  it  is  true,  a demand 
of  justice  sanctioned  by  the  Author  of  life  ; but 
the  Author  of  life  is  above  the  living  as  well  as 
above  the  dead  ; and  in  the  home  as  a sanCtuary 
the  priest  of  God  must  not  even  administer  jus- 
tice on  his  oivn  behalf,  in  a case  of  blood-aven- 
ging. Then  and  there  it  is,  peculiarly,  that  the 
word  of  the  Lord  to  be  heeded  is,  “Vengeance 
is  mine,  and  recompense  and  that  the  prayer 
of  the  human  blood-avenger  must  be  ; 

“ Lord,  thou  God  to  whom  vengeance  belongeth, 

Thou  God  to  whom  vengeance  belongeth,  shine  forth."  * 

All  the  Mosaic  legislation,  like  all  the  early 
Hebrew  praClice,  seems  conformed  to  this  primi- 
tive conception  of  the  rights  of  sancduary  or  of 
asylum.  It  was  on  this  basis  that  there  were 
cities  of  refuge,  or  of  asylum,  at  convenient  dis- 

* Deut.  32  : 35  ; Heb.  10  : 30.  Psa.  94  : i. 


Hospitality  in  the  East. 


127 


tances  throuo-hout  the  land  of  Israel,'  into  which 
a shedder  of  blood  could  flee  from  the  hand  of 
the  blood-avenger.  These  cities  were  as  the  spe- 
cial tents  of  Jehovah,  where  any  in-comer  could 
claim  the  rights  of  Jehovah’s  hospitality.  And 
the  privileges  thus  accorded  to  the  shedder  of 
blood  were  contingent  upon  the  life  of  the  high- 
priest,^  who  was  Jehovah’s  peculiar  representative 
in  the  land  where  these  cities  were  his  tents. 

Even  the  special  exceptions  to  this  right  of 
asylum  which  seem  to  find  Oriental  sanction  in 
the  Bible  record,  are  conformable  to  this  gen- 
eral view  of  its  scope  and  significance.  For  ex- 
ample : Sisera  the  Canaanitish  chieftain,  when 
defeated  by  Deborah  and  Barak,  the  Hebrew 
leaders,  took  refuge  in  the  tent  of  Jael,  the  wife 
of  Heber  the  Kenite.  By  the  law  of  Oriental 
hospitality,  Sisera  was  entitled  to  protedlion  as 
a guest,  even  though  he  had  been  the  bitter 
enemy,  or  the  very  murderer,  of  Jael’s  husband 
or  child.  But  Jael  took  the  life  of  Sisera  after 
she  had  given  him  drink  as  if  in  formal  covenant 
with  him  as  her  accepted  guest.  And  for  this 

*Num.  35  ; 6,  i i-i  5 ; Deut.  4:43;  19 : 2,  3 ; Josh.  20 : 1-9  ; 21  : 13, 
21,  27,  32,  36,  38  ; I Chron.  6 : 57,  67.  ’Num.  35  : 25-28,  32. 


128  Studies  i}i  Oriental  Social  Life. 

acl,  in  apparent  grossest  violation  of  funda- 
mental Oriental  law,  Jael  is  specifically  com- 
mended in  the  song  of  Deborah  the  prophetessd 
Now  there  must  be  some  plausible  reason  for 
this  giving  of  public  honor,  by  an  Oriental  people, 
to  an  adl  which  on  the  face  of  it  was  the  foulest 
treachery,  according  to  their  own  standards  of 
fidelity  and  right ; yet  such  a reason  has  been 
sought  for  in  vain  by  the  commentators.  The 
suggestion  which  has  been  ventured,  that  Sisera 
had  no  right  to  seek  protection  in  a tent  when 
only  a woman  was  there,  is  not  in  accordance 
with  Oriental  modes  of  thought.  A fugitive  has 
a right  to  seek  an  asylum  even  in  a woman’s  tent, 
in  an  emergency.  Oriental  literature  abounds 
in  references  to  such  cases. 

When,  however,  we  see  that  the  underlying 
idea  of  the  safety  of  a guest  in  an  Oriental  tent 
is,  that  the  host  there  is  God’s  representative, 
and  that  therefore  the  host  must  aCt  for  God, 
and  not  for  himself,  this  incident  can  be  seen  in 
a new  light.  Sisera  as  the  opponent  of  Israel 
was  looked  upon  as  God’s  opponent.  Jael  was 
not  an  Israelite,  but  by  her  course  with  reference 
1 Juclg.  4 : 1-24:  5 : i-3i- 


Hospitality  in  the  East. 


1 29 


to  Sisera  she  took  sides  with  God’s  people,  as 
Rahab  of  Jericho  had  taken  sides  with  that 
people  in  the  days  of  Joshua.  And  Jael  would 
count  herself  as  executing  judgment  for  God, 
when  she  destroyed  an  enemy  of  God,  even 
though  he  was  not  her  personal  enemy,  but  was 
her  guest. 

Mark  you,  I am  not  defending  the  adlion 
of  Jael,  but  I am  pointing  out  how,  in  accord- 
ance with  Oriental  ideas,  she  was  evidencing 
her  conception  of  a higher  ethical  standard, 
when  she  departed  from  the  ordinary  customs 
and  traditions  of  her  people  in  order  to  show 
her  fidelity  to  God  himself,  as  in  her  opinion 
superior  to  all  mere  human  customs  and  tradi- 
tions. Her  very  violation  of  the  letter  of  the 
law  of  Oriental  hospitality  would  thus  seem  to 
be  an  explicit  proof  of  her  purpose  of  conform- 
ing to  the  truest  spirit  of  that  law.  And  so  it 
seems  to  have  been  understood  by  the  Hebrews. 

Again  the  record  stands,  that  Joab  was,  by 
King  Solomon’s  order,  slain  in  the  very  Tent  of 
the  Lord,  when  he  had  sought  asylum  there,  and 
had  caught  hold  of  the  horns  of  Jehovah’s  altar  ; ^ 

* 1 Kings  2 : 28-34. 

9 


130  Sticdics  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

as  an  Oriental  of  to-day  would  claim  a host’s  asy- 
lum by  laying  hold  of  his  tent-pole.  And  this 
slaying  of  Joab  was  in  accordance  with  the  dying 
request  of  King  David  to  his  son  and  successor.  ^ 
On  the  face  of  it,  this  seems  a revengeful  request 
by  David,  and  a treacherous  and  sacrilegious  acl 
by  Solomon’s  officials.  But  a closer  study  of  the 
incident  in  the  light  of  Oriental  customs,  shows 
its  consistency  with  the  whole  idea  of  the  su- 
preme sacredness  of  the  relations  of  host  and 
guest,  in  the  East. 

Long  years  before  this,  Joab  had  grossly  vio- 
lated the  law  of  hospitality  by  slaying  Abner,  a 
representative  of  the  house  of  Saul,  when  Abner 
had  come  as  a guest  to  David’s  tent,  and  was 
still  within  the  conventional  limits  of  the  asylum 
of  that  tent  at  Hebron.^  The  treachery  of  that 
acd  of  joab  was  recognized  by  David  at  the  time 
of  its  commission,’*  and  it  ought  to  have  been 
punished  then.  But  because  of  Joab’s  fidelity  to 
David  personally,  David  had  spared  Joab  during 
all  these  years  ; and  when  David  came  to  his 
death-bed  he  was  actuated,  not  by  revenge,  but 
by  an  aroused  conscience,  to  insist  that  delayed 
* I Kings  2 ; 1-6.  ^2  Sam.  3 : 6,  20-27.  Sam.  3 ; 28,  29. 


Hospitality  hi  the  East. 


justice  should  be  executed  against  Joab.  And, 
inasmuch  as  the  sin  of  Joab,  in  his  breach  of  the 
asylum-right  of  hospitality  in  the  case  of  Abner, 
was  deemed  a denial  of  God’s  control  in  the  tent 
of  a host,  it  was  not  for  Joab  to  claim  the  asylum- 
right  of  the  Tent  of  the  Lord  when  God’s  justice 
overtook  him  there.  This  is  the  way  in  which 
Orientals  would  look  at  such  a case. 

The  duty  of  hospitality  in  the  East  seems,  as 
I have  said,  to  include  the  twofold  idea  of  the 
brotherhood  of  man  and  the  fatherhood  of  God, 
or,  rather,  the  brotherhood  of  man  as  a conse- 
quence of  the  fatherhood  of  God, — all  being 
“guests  of  God,”  even  in  their  own  homes. 
Every  man  as  a child  of  God  is  entitled  to  recog- 
nition by  every  other  child  of  God  as  a brother 
man,  and  to  the  supply  of  his  immediate  wants 
accordingly.  Every  man  being  entitled  to  recog- 
nition as  a child  of  God,  it  follows  that  his  every 
appeal  to  God  for  justice  or  for  mercy  must  be 
referred  to  God  by  whoever  claims  to  be  a 
representative  of  God,  in  spite  of  all  personal 
considerations  prompting  to  a refusal  of  such 
reference. 

For  this  reason  the  claims  of  hospitality  take 


132  Studies  in  Oi'iental  Social  Life. 

precedence  of  all  other  claims,  except  the  spe- 
cific claims  of  God  himself ; and  a violation  of 
the  claims  of  hospitality  is  a sin  of  sins,  in  the 
estimation  of  the  Oriental  mind.  To  this  extent 
the  modern  practice — or  the  recognized  ideal — in 
the  East  coincides  with  the  teachings  of  the  Bible 
narrative. 

Lady  Anne  Blunt,  as  if  in  partial  apprehension 
of  this  truth,  says  : “ Hospitality,  to  the  Euro- 
pean mind,  does  not  recommend  itself,  like  justice 
or  mercy,  as  a natural  virtue.  It  is  rather  re- 
garded as  what  theologians  call  a supernatural 
one  ; that  is  to  say,  it  would  seem  to  require 
something  more  than  the  instincd  of  ordinary 
good  feeling  to  throw  open  the  doors  of  one’s 
house  to  a stranger,  to  kill  one’s  lamb  for  his 
benefit,  and  to  share  one’s  last  loaf  with  him. 
Yet  the  Bedouins  do  not  so  regard  it.  They 
look  upon  hospitality  not  merely  as  a duty  im- 
posed by  divine  ordinance,  but  as  the  primary 
instinbl  of  a well-constituted  mind.  To  refuse 
shelter  or  food  to  a stranger  is  held  to  be  not 
merely  a wicked  acdion,  an  offense  against  divine 
or  human  law,  but  the  very  essence  of  depravity. 
A man  thus  acding  could  not  again  win  the 


Hospitality  in  the  East. 


respe6l  or  toleration  of  his  neighbors.  This,  in 
principle,  is  the  same  in  all  Arab  tribes.  Bedouin 
or  not ; but  the  particular  laws  and  obligations 
of  hospitality  among  them  differ  widely.” 

To  the  Oriental  mind,  the  surpassing  sin  of 
Sodom,  as  typical  of  the  depth  of  iniquity  to 
which  the  Cities  of  the  Plain  had  fallen,  was  the 
disregard  of  the  rights  of  hospitality  in  the  pur- 
posed ill-treatment  of  the  strangers  whom  Lot, 
as  the  one  righteous  man  of  the  city,  had  wel- 
comed to  his  home,  and  was  ready  to  shield  from 
harm  even  by  the  surrender  of  the  members  of 
his  own  family — as  he  was  bound  to  do  by  the 
Oriental  standard  of  right.^  To  this  day  a tradi- 
tional site  of  Sodom  on  the  southern  boundary 
of  Palestine  is  pointed  out  by  the  Arabs  as  the 
place  where  stones  from  heaven  were  hurled 
against  a people  who  misused  “ some  travelers 
seeking  hospitality  there.” 

So,  again,  it  was  the  violation  of  the  rights  of 
hospitality  at  Gibeah  by  the  Benjamites  that 
aroused  the  people  of  Israel  to  gather  “as  one 
man  ” to  destroy  the  whole  city  of  Gibeah,  even 
though  it  must  be  done  at  the  cost  of  cutting  off 
* Gen.  i8  : 16-33;  ^9  = 


1 34  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

one  of  the  entire  tribes  from  its  inheritance  in 
the  promises  to  Israel.  ^ In  facb,  there  were  no 
rights  so  sacred  in.  the  ancient  East  as  the  rights 
of  hospitality,  nor  was  any  sin  so  great  as  a dis- 
regard of  those  rights.  Hospitality  included  love 
to  man  as  based  on  fidelity  to  God.  A breach 
of  hospitality  was  in  defiance  not  only  of  the 
rights  of  man  but  of  the  prerogatives  of  God. 
And  as  it  was  of  old,  so  it  is  to-day  in  all  the 
Oriental  world. 

This  idea  of  the  universal  right  of  asylum,  or 
of  sancduary  against  one’s  personal  enemies,  and 
of  the  corresponding  duty  of  granting  such  asy- 
lum to  whoever  asks  for  it,  and  at  whatever  cost 
to  one’s  self,  is  manifested  in  the  East  in  another 
phase  of  hospitality  than  that  which  has  its  be- 
ginning in  an  entrance  into  one’s  tent,  or  in  a 
sharing  of  one’s  food  or  drink.  An  Arab  who  is 
assailed  by  enemies,  or  who  is  pursued  by  an 
avenger  of  blood,  may  cry  out  the  name  of  an 
absent  chieftain,  or  man  of  authority  and  power, 
and  claim  to  be  his  guest  or  protege.  At  once  it 
becomes  the  duty  of  those  who  hear  this  cry  to 
aid  the  refugee  in  reaching  him  whom  he  thus 

*Judy.  19  : 1-30;  20  : 1-48. 


135 


Hospitality  in  the  East. 

makes  his  host  or  patron — or  dakheel,  as  an  Arab 
would  say.  And  when  the  news  of  that  appeal 
has  reached  the  ears  of  him  who  is  named  as 
host,  it  is  his  duty  to  go  at  once  to  the  imprisoned 
refugee,  or  to  welcome  and  protetd  him  if  he  be 
brought  a prisoner-guest,  or  to  avenge  his  death 
on  his  murderers  if  the  refugee’s  appeal  for 
sandluary  hospitality  has  been  unheeded. 

Various  Bible  texts  gain  fresh  meaning  in  the 
light  of  this  latter  custom.  Thus,  in  the  Prov- 
erbs : “The  name  of  the  Lord  is  a strong  tower  : 
the  righteous  runneth  into  it,  and  is  safe.”^  And 
in  the  prophecy  of  Joel:  “And  it  shall  come 

to  pass,  that  whosoever  shall  call  on  the  name 
of  the  Lord  shall  be  delivered.”^  Or,  as  Peter 
rendered  it  in  the  day  of  Pentecost,  and  as  Paul 
repeated  it  in  his  letter  to  the  Romans  : “ Who- 
soever shall  call  on  the  name  of  the  Lord  shall 
be  saved,”  ^ whosoever  shall  commit  himself,  in 
trust,  to  the  Lord  as  his  dakheel,  may  be  sure 
of  acceptance  and  protedlion.  And  when  the 
scope  and  significance  of  Oriental  hospitality  are 
perceived  in  the  bearing  of  such  obligations  as 
these,  it  would  seem  obvious  that  faithfulness  in 

* Prov.  i8  : lo.  ^Joel  2 ; 32.  ®Acts  2 : 21  ; Rom.  10  : 13. 


1 36  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

the  duties  of  hospitality  on  the  part  of  an  Oriental 
is  in  itself  a test  of  personal  charadler,  as  an  ex- 
hibit of  obedience  prompted  by  unfailing  faith. 

No  page  of  recorded  history  is  so  ancient  as  to 
go  back  of  the  time  when  these  ideas  of  hospi- 
tality, as  indicative  of  love  to  man  and  of  fidelity 
to  God,  were  not  prevalent  in  the  best  religious 
teachings  of  the  race.  Nor  does  any  page  of 
inspired  prophecy  suggest  a human  future  when 
a recognition  of  these  ideas  shall  no  longer  be  a 

o o 

real  test  of  human  character.  The  oldest  religious 
document  extant  is  what  is  commonly  known  as 
the  Egyptian  Book  of  the  Dead.  Portions  of  that 
work  date  back  to  centuries  before  the  time  of 
Abraham.  In  the  pidlure  therein  given  of  the 
soul’s  judgment  after  death,  the  commendation 
of  every  soul  who  passes  the  great  ordeal  in  the 
Hall  of  Two  Truths,  by  the  god  who  has  tested 
him,  is  : “ The  god  has  welcomed  him  as  he  has 
wished.  He  has  given  food  to  the  hungry,  drink 
to  the  thirsty,  clothes  to  the  naked  ; he  has  made 
a boat  for  me  to  go  by  [that  is,  he  has  provided 
for  the  burial  of  the  dead].” 

Among  the  ancient  Greeks,  hospitality  was  a 
potent  religious  sentiment,  from  the  earliest  days 


Hospitality  in  the  East. 


137 


of  that  people.  The  possibility  was  recognized 
that  a stranger-guest  might  be  a god  in  disguise, 
and  that  therefore  every  stranger-guest  must  be 
treated  with  deference.  Zeus  was  the  protecting 
deity  of  strangers,  and  a violation  of  the  laws 
of  hospitality  incurred  his  displeasure  and  ven- 
geance. The  stranger-guest  in  a Greek  home 
became  a guest-friend  by  the  covenant  of  hospi- 
tality ; and  this  guest-friendship  was  transmitted 
as  an  inheritance  from  generation  to  generation. 

It  was  customar)^  among  the  Greeks,  on  the 
departure  of  a guest  from  the  home  where  he  had 
been  entertained,  for  the  host  to  break  a die,  or  a 
token,  into  two  parts,  the  one  for  the  host-friend 
and  the  other  for  the  guest-friend,  as  a means  of 
recognition  in  the  future  between  parents  or  chil- 
dren thus  interlinked.  It  is  claimed  by  scholars 
that  the  dominance  of  the  sentiment  of  hospi- 
tality declined  with  the  growth  of  Greek  civiliza- 
tion, and  that  it  was  less  powerful  in  the  lyric  age 
than  in  the  Homeric, — which  goes  to  show  that  it 
was  a pure  primitive  concept,  rather  than  an  evo- 
lution based  on  utilitarian  ideas. 

Similarly  in  ancient  Rome  the  duty  of  hospi- 
tality was  a religious  obligation,  and  its  violation 


138  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

was  a crime  and  an  impiety.  As  among  the 
Orientals,  so  among  the  Romans,  a guest  took 
precedence  of  members  of  the  family  of  the  host 
in  his  claims  for  consideration.  The  pledge  or 
token  of  the  covenant  of  hospitality  was  known 
as  the  tessera  hospitalis.  It  was  divided  between 
the  host  and  his  guest,  as  a means  of  recognition 
by  them  or  by  their  descendants ; for  with  the 
Romans,  as  with  the  Greeks,  the  covenant  of 
hospitality  was  of  hereditary  force.  This  tessera 
hospitalis  is  understood  to  have  borne  on  its  face 
the  image  of  Jupiter  Hospitalis,  in  indication  of 
its  divine  sanction. 

In  the  so-called  Sibylline  Books,  which  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  of  Jewish  authorship,  in  the 
second  or  third  century  before  the  Christian  era, 
the  prophecy  of  the  Messianic  age  included  a 
promised  universal  triumph  of  “love,  faith,  hospi- 
tality,” as  the  most  blessed  conditions  for  hu- 
manity. 

The  claims  of  hospitality  are  recognized  among 
the  American  Indians  in  much  the  same  manner 
as  among  the  Orientals.  A stranger,  even  though 
an  enemy,  may  enter  an  Indian  tent,  and  be  sure 
of  protection,  and  of  a share  of  all  that  the  tent 


Hospitality  in  the  East. 


139 


affords.  In  some  tribes  a dish  of  food  is  always 
ready,  in  the  tent  of  a chief,  for  whoever  will 
enter  and  partake  of  it.  And  so  in  lesser  or  in 
larger  measure  this  principle  is  recognized  by 
primitive  peoples  everywhere. 

In  the  pitlure  of  the  final  judgment  given  by 
Jesus  of  Nazareth,  it  is  shown  that  when,  before 
the  Judge  of  all  the  earth,  there  “shall  be 
gathered  all  the  nations  ” — all  the  primitive  peo- 
ples and  the  outside  barbarians — “then  shall  the 
King  say  unto  them  on  his  right  hand,  Come, 
ye  blessed  of  my  Father,  inherit  the  kingdom 
prepared  for  you  from  the  foundation  of  the 
world  : for  I was  an  hungred,  and  ye  gave  me 
meat : I was  thirsty,  and  ye  gave  me  drink  ; I 
was  a stranger,  and  ye  took  me  in  ; naked,  and 
ye  clothed  me  ; I was  sick,  and  ye  visited  me  : I 
was  in  prison,  and  ye  came  unto  me.”^  And  in 
answer  to  the  question  by  the  welcomed  heathen 
zvhen  this  proof  of  fidelity  to  the  King  of  all  was 
thus  evidenced,  the  King  shall  reply:  “Verily  I say 
unto  you,  Inasmuch  as  ye  did  it  unto  one  of  these 
my  brethren,  even  these  least,  ye  did  it  unto  me.”^ 

' Matt.  25  : 31-36.  See,  also,  Matt.  10  : 40;  John  13  ; 20. 

^ Matt.  23  : 37-40. 


140  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

Muhammad  enjoins  the  duty  of  hospitality  on 
his  followers  as  indicativ'e  of  their  state  of  heart 
before  the  all-seeing  God.  “Whoever,”  he  says, 
“ believes  in  God  and  the  day  of  resurrection, 
must  respect  his  guest ; and  the  time  of  being 
kind  to  him  is  one  day  and  one  night ; and 
the  period  of  entertaining  him  is  three  days ; 
and  after  that,  if  he  does  it  longer,  he  benefits 
him  more  ; but  it  is  not  right  for  a guest  to  stay 
in  the  house  of  a host  so  long  as  to  incommode 
him.” 

Peter,  the  leader  of  the  apostles  of  Jesus  Christ, 
in  his  first  general  letter  to  the  scattered  mem- 
bers of  the  Christian  Church,  enjoins  earnestly 
upon  them  all  the  duty  of  showing  that  love 
which  “ covereth  a multitude  of  sins,”  by  “using 
hospitality  one  to  another  without  murmuring.”^ 
And  Paul,  the  apostle  of  Jesus  Christ  to  the  out- 
side Gentile  world,  presses  the  importance  of 
being  “given  to  hospitality.”^  And  the  writer  of 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  emphasizes  the  value 
of  this  virtue,  or  grace,  by  a reference  to  the 
illustration  of  its  historic  preciousness  in  the  case 
of  Abraham  and  of  Lot  when  he  says  ; “ P'orget 

* I Pet.  4:9.  Rom.  12  : 13. 


Hospitality  in  the  East.  14 1 

not  to  show  love  unto  strangers  : for  thereby 
some  have  entertained  angels  unawares.”^ 

And  so  it  is  that  we  find  in  the  ideal  virtue  or 
grace  of  hospitality  in  the  East,  a spirit  of  unsel- 
fish regard  for  every  stranger  as  a fellow  child 
of  God,  impelled  by  a sense  of  one’s  responsi- 
bility as  God’s  representative  in  welcoming  that 
stranger  child  of  God  into  the  home  where  the 
host  is  himself  a guest  of  God.  That  not  every 
Oriental  is  true  to  the  ideal  of  duty  thus  held 
before  him,  is  only  an  indication  that  Orientals 
are  human.  That  any  Oriental  has  that  pur- 
pose of  heart  which  prompts  him  to  aspire  un- 
ceasingly to  this  ideal,  is  a proof  that  among 
the  least  favored  peoples,  as  well  as  among  those 
most  favored,  there  are  possibilities  and  signs  of 
that  God-seeking  and  God-serving  and  God- 
trusting  spirit  which  is  inseparable  from  true  re- 
ligion— by  whatsoever  name  it  be  known  among 
the  sons  of  men. 

He  who  is  always  ready  to  welcome  to  his  home 
and  heart  any  stranger-guest,  in  the  thought  that 
that  stranger-guest  may  be  a son  of  God,  is  surely 
in  an  attitude  of  spirit  to  welcome  gladly  the  Son 
* Heb.  13:2. 


142 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


of  God  when  he  shows  himself  as  suchd  Here  is 
a test  of  character  by  which  the  heathen  world 
can  be  judged ; and  Jesus  Christ  explicitly  affirms 
that  this  test  will  be  recognized  by  him,  as  the 
decisive  one,  when  he  “shall  come  in  his  glory, 
and  all  the  angels  with  him,”  and  “shall  sit  on 
the  throne  of  his  glor)^,”^  judging  the  heathen 
nations  gathered  before  him. 

‘ See  Prov.  25  : 21  ; Rom.  12  : 20.  ^ Matt.  25  ; 31. 


FUNERALS  AND  MOURNING 
IN  THE  EAST. 


It  was  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Nile,  not  far  . 
from  the  ancient  step-shaped  pyramid  of  Saq- 
qarah,  or  “ the  Pyramid  of  Degrees  ” as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  a few  hours’  donkey-ride  above 
the  plains  of  Gheezeh — on  which  the  greatest  of 
all  the  pyramids  looks  down,  that  I first  heard  the 
cry  of  Egyptians  wailing  over  their  dead.  I had 
already  groped  my  way  through  the  subterranean 
chambers  of  the  Serapeum,  or  tombs  of  the 
sacred  bulls,  and  had  studied  with  wonder  the 

143 


144 


Studies  in  Orie7ital  Social  Life. 

sculptured  scenes  of  Egyptian  life  of  forty  cen- 
turies ago  on  the  walls  of  the  tomb  of  the  archi- 
tecl:  Tey,  and  was  slowly  riding  northward  again, 
with  my  thoughts  intent  on  the  ancient  past  that 
had  thus  been  vividly  brought  before  my  mind, 
when  I was  started  out  of  my  rever}'  by  a cry. 

A sharp,  shrill,  ear-piercing  shriek,  as  from  one 
in  mortal  pain,  was  the  first  sound  that  broke  in 
on  the  desert  silence.  Then  came  other  shrieks, 
shriek  upon  shriek,  a chorus  of  shrieks.  The 
shrieks  were  followed  by  wails, — loud,  high,  pro- 
longed, quavering  wails.  These  wails  rose  and 
fell  in  strange  weird  cadences  ; but  all  the  while 
they  seemed  no  less  really  heartrending  cries 
of  agony.  Yet  no  human  being  was  in  sight  of 
our  party,  in  the  direction  of  these  sounds  of 
suffering,  in  advance  of  us.  Our  impulse  was  to 
hasten  forward  to  the  help  of  those  whose  cries 
we  heard ; and  doing  this  we  came  to  an  eleva- 
tion in  the  rolling  desert,  and  saw  at  a distance, 
a little  to  the  right  of  our  pathway,  standing 
out  against  the  sky,  a group,  or  semi-circle,  of 
women,  from  whom  came  the  shrieks  and  wails 
which  had  startled  us  so. 

Riding  toward  this  group,  we  learned  the  na- 


Funerals  and  Mourning  in  the  East.  1 45 


ture  and  cause  of  these  sounds  of  sorrow.  Two 
men  had  been  working  together  in  a quarry, 
there,  that  morning.  In  a moment  one  had 
fallen  dead.  The  one  was  taken  and  the  other 
left.^  -And  now  there  was  a wailing  over  the 
dead  Egyptian.  The  body  of  the  dead  man, 
covered  over  with  a thin  cloth,  was  stretched  out 
on  the  desert  sand.  Close  beside  him  crouched 
his  wife,  who  had  been  promptly  summoned. 
Her  head  and  face  were  uncovered.  Her  hair 
was  disheveled,  hanging  down  upon  her  shoul- 
ders and  about  her  face.  Her  loose  garments 
were  disordered  and  torn.  Her  bosom  was 
bared.  Upon  her  face  and  hair  were  thrown 
masses  of  the  black  mud  of  the  Nile.  Swaying 
her  body  back  and  forth,  she  violently  struck  at 
her  bosom  with  her  hands,  or  clutched  at  her 
hair,  while  shrieking  out  in  wild  cries  of  hope- 
less agony. 

Standing  about  the  crouching  woman  were 
other  women,  all  with  their  heads  and  faces 
uncovered  and  mud-bespattered,  their  hair  dis- 
heveled, their  bosoms  bared  ; swinging  their  arms 
above  their  heads,  and  waving  wildly  dark 

* Matt.  24  : 40. 

10 


146  Sttcdies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

scarfs  or  handkerchiefs,  while  they  shrieked  out 
those  piercing  shrieks,  and  wailed  those  loud, 
high,  prolonged  quavering  wails  of  mourning, 
which  we  had  heard  at  a distance  that  morning, 
and  the  like  of  which  were  heard  on  that  very 
]:>lain,  five  centuries  before  the  days  of  Moses, 
when  the  family  of  the  architect  Tey  had  laid  his 
embalmed  body  away  in  that  tomb  I had  just 
visited,  under  the  shadow  of  the  Pyramid  of  De- 
grees at  Saqqarah. 

Twenty-three  centuries  ago,  Herodotus,  whom 
we  call  the  Father  of  History,  visited  Egypt, 
and  was  impressed  by  its  strange  mourning  cus- 
toms, which  he  described  much  as  I am  describing 
them  to  you  to-day.  When  any  one  died  there, 
he  said,  all  the  females  of  his  family,  covering 
their  heads  and  faces  with  mud,  ran  through  the 
streets  with  their  bosoms  exposed,  striking  them- 
selves, and  uttering  loud  lamentations.  Twenty 
centuries  before  Herodotus,  there  were  piHured 
on  the  Avails  of  the  tombs  in  Egypt  representa- 
tions, which  are  fresh  to-day,  of  Availing  women 
mourning  over  the  dead,  their  heads  uncovered, 
their  hair  disheveled,  their  bosoms  bared,  fling- 
ing their  arms,  or  beating  their  breasts,  or  tear- 


Funerals  and  Mourning  in  the  East.  147 


ing  their  hair,  or  throwing  mud  on  their  heads,  in 
demonstration  of  their  sorrow,  while  the  wife  with 
similar  expressions  of  grief  crouches  at  the  feet 
of  her  dead  husband. 

The  life  of  the  East  of  the  present  is  the  life 
of  the  East  of  the  past  in  the  hour  of  mourning 
as  it  is  in  the  hour  of  rejoicing.  At  the  very 
moment  of  death,  one  of  these  wild  shrieks,  by 
whoever  is  nearest  the  dead,  announces  the  fa6l 
of  the  death  to  all  who  are  within  hearing.  This 
cry  is  taken  up  and  repeated  by  friends  of  the 
family  near  and  far.  Every  sympathizing  woman 
friend  who  hurries  to  share  the  mourning  over 
the  dead,  announces  her  approach  to  the  sorrow- 
stricken  home  by  the  conventional  shriek,  and 
then  adds  her  voice  to  the  shrieking  chorus 
when  she  is  fairly  within  the  mourning  circle. 

If,  indeed,  the  death  occurs  away  from  home, 
as  in  the  case  at  Saqqarah  which  I have  de- 
scribed, the  first  announcement  of  it  to  the  family 
is  by  the  death-shriek  at  the  door,  by  those 
who  have  come  to  break  the  intelligence  thus 
abruptly  to  the  bereaved  ones.  And  from  the 
house  of  mourning  the  wailing  women  hurry 
through  the  streets  of  the  neighborhood,  shriek- 


148 


Studies  in  Orie7ital  Social  Life. 


ing  out  the  piercing  death-cry,  with  or  without 
the  aid  of  musical  instruments,  in  order  to  com- 
municate the  news  of  a death  ; as  our  church- 
bells  communicate  it,  in  their  tolling^  the  ag^e  of 
the  deceased,  in  many  an  Occidental  community. 
It  is  in  the  East  to-day,  as  it  was  in  the  days  of 
Herodotus  and  of  Ooheleth,  that  “man  goeth  to 
his  long  home,  and  the  mourners  go  about  the 
streets.”  ^ 

The  Oriental  death-cry  is  indescribable  in  its 
peculiar  tones  and  in  its  unique  impressiveness. 
I have  tried  to  tell  you  how  it  sounded  to  me  ; 
yet  I am  as  sure  that  my  description  of  it  is 
inadequate  to  give  you  an  idea  of  its  wild  weird- 
ness, as  I am  that  no  two  intelligent  observers 
agree  in  the  figures  by  which  they  would  make  it 
known  to  others. 

Sir  John  Chardin  calls  it  “ an  image  of  hell,” 
starting  off  in  the  dead  of  night  with  a “ sud- 
denness which  is  . . . terrifying,”  and  “with  a 
greater  shrillness  and  loudness  than  one  could 
easily  imagine.”  When  he  first  heard  it,  in 
Persia,  two  centuries  ago,  he  “ imagined  his 
own  servants  were  murdered,”  and  he  was  well- 
* Eccl.  12  : 5. 


Funerals  a?id  Mourning  m the  East.  149 


nipfh  friorhtened  out  of  his  senses.  Burckhardt 
speaks  of  it  as  “ the  most  lamentable  howlings.” 
Van  Lennep  says  that  it  is  a “ shrill  and  piercing 
cry,”  which  can  be  “ heard  at  a great  distance, 
and  above  every  other  noise,  even  the  din  of 
battle.”  Klunzinger  describes  it  as  “ the  shriek- 
ing of  women,  now  wound  off  in  the  trochees  of  a 
machine  in  acdion,  anon  in  the  dadtyls  of  the 
steam-horse  thundering  along  at  full  speed,  or 
breaking  up  into  the  indefinite  clack  of  a mill,” 
while  “ high  up,  from  time  to  time,  like  a rocket 
rises  a shriek  from  a hundred  throats.” 

There  is  a certain  semblance  of  the  figures  em- 
ployed by  modern  travelers  in  their  description  of 
these  wild  cries  to  those  used  by  the  Old  Testa- 
ment writers  when  referring  to  them.  Thus  Dr. 
Amelia  B.  Edwards,  in  recording  her  first  hearing 
of  this  death-cry,  says  : “All  at  once  we  heard  a 
sound  like  the  far-off  quavering  sound  of  many 
owls.  It  shrilled — swelled — wavered — dropped 
— then  died  away,  like  the  moaning  of  the  wind 
at  sea.  We  held  our  breath  and  listened.  We 
had  never  heard  anything  so  wild  and  plaintive.” 
Dr.  William  M.  Thomson  adds  that  the  death- 
chant  “runs  into  a horrid  deep  growl,  like  wild 


150  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

beasts,  in  which  it  is  impossible  to  distinguish 
any  words.”  And  these  comparings  of  the  cry  to 
that  of  wild  beasts  and  birds  seem  to  have  been 
in  the  mind  of  the  old  Hebrew  prophet  Micah 
when  he  said  : “ For  this  will  I wail  and  howl,  I 
will  go  stripped  and  naked  : I will  make  a wail- 
ing like  the  jackals,  and  a mourning  like  the 
ostriches.”  ^ 

These  varied  and  divergent  comparisons  may 
not.  indeed,  give  you  any  well-defined  idea  of 
the  distinguishing  peculiarities  of  this  Oriental 
wailing  for  the  dead  ; but  I assure  you  that  if 
its  sound  were  once  to  come  into  your  ears,  its 
echoes  would  be  a lifetime  memory'  with  you. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  wonderful  consider- 
ateness of  Orientals  for  those  who  have  a claim 
upon  their  hospitality,  of  which  I have  spoken 
in  another  place,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Leonard  Woolsey 
Bacon  tells  me  that,  while  he  was  travelinof  in 
Koordistan,  he  heard  this  wild  death-cr)'  break 
out  in  the  stillness  of  the  night,  but  that  it  was 
quickly  hushed.  The  next  morning  he  learned 
that  his  host  had  sent  word  to  the  mourners,  on 
the  first  shriek  reaching  his  ears,  that  there  were 


' Micah  I : 8. 


Funerals  and  Mourning  in  the  East.  1 5 i 


stranger  guests  with  him,  who  might  be  clisturbetl 
by  this  wailing;  and  promptly  the  privileges  of 
mourning  gave  way  to  the  demands  of  hospi- 
tality. 

The  Oriental  wailing  over  the  dead,  before  the 
burial,  includes  a calling  of  the  dead  by  name, 
or  by  the  designation  of  his  relation  to  the 
mourners,  with  a lamenting  of  his  loss:  “O  my 
father!”  “O  my  master!”  “O  my  glory!”  “O 
my  pride!”  “O  my  strength!”  “O  camel  of  the 
house!”  “Alas  for  him  ! ” “Alas  for  him ! ” Such 
cries  as  these  are  heard  over  the  dead  in  the 
East  to-day,  as  they  were  heard  when  King 
David  wailed  over  his  dead  son  Absalom;  “O 
my  son  Absalom,  my  son,  my  son  Absalom ! 
would  God  I had  died  for  thee,  O Absalom,  my 
son,  my  son!”^  or  when  the  mourners  over  the 
disobedient  prophet  at  Bethel,  in  the  days  of 
Jeroboam,  “mourned  over  him,  saying,  Alas,  my 
brother!”^  or  when  the  prophet  Jeremiah  said 
of  the  unworthy  king  Jehoiakim;  “They  shall 
not  lament  for  him,  saying.  Ah  my  brother!  . . . 
they  shall  not  lament  for  him,  saying  Ah  lord ! 
or.  Ah  his  glory  ! 

* 2 Sam.  18  : 33.  * i Kings  13  : 30.  ® Jer.  22  : i8. 


1 5 2 Studies  in  Orie?ital  Social  Life. 

There  is  a remarkable  survival  of  these 
Oriental  mourning  customs  so  far,  among  Occi- 
dental people,  in  the  Irish  wake  as  it  is  still  ob- 
served in  some  Irish  communities.  It  has,  in 
facd,  been  shown  that  the  designation  of  the 
Irish  mourning  cry,  the  “ullagone,” — “ ulla  gulla, 

gulla  g’one  ” — is  identical,  in  both  sense  and 

» 

sound,  Avith  the  Arabic  designation  of  the  Ori- 
ental mourning  cry^  The  dirge  in  which  this 
cry  is  employed  is  called  the  “ keen  ” (or,  in 
Irish,  caoi?ie),  and  it  is  spoken  of  as  “ a pro- 
longed ear-piercing  wail,”  unequaled  as  a “ sound 
at  once  so  expressive  of  utter  despair,  and  ap- 
pealing to  heaven  or  hell  for  [help  or]  ven- 
geance.” 

An  ancient  Irish  record  shows  that  the  cries 
over  a dead  son  of  Connal,  in  the  night  following 
his  death,  were  much  like  those  which  are  to  be 
heard  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  or  of  the  Jordan, 
to-day.  “O  son  of  Connal,  why  didst  thou  die? 
Royal,  noble,  learned  youth!  \'aliant,  aclive, 
warlike,  eloquent!  Why  didst  thou  die?  Alas! 
awail-a-da)' ! . . . Alas ! alas ! why  didst  thou  die, 
O son  of  Connal,  before  the  spoils  of  victory  by 
thy  warlike  arm  were  brought  to  the  hall  of  the 


Funerals  and  Mourning  in  the  East.  1 5 3 


nobles,  and  thy  shield  with  the  ancient?  Alas! 
alas!”  And  the  common  cry  in  the  “keen  ” is 

“ Afavourneen  / Alavourneen  ! Oh,  why  did  you  die  ? ” 

in  the  spirit  of  the  Oriental  mourner.  Nor  is 
this  by  any  means  a solitary  instance  of  the  sur- 
vival of  Oriental  primitive  customs  among  West- 
ern peoples  of  Celtic  or  Gallic  stock. 

The  ancient  monuments  of  Egypt  seem  to  in- 
dicate a class  of  professional  women  wallers  in 
attendance  on  an  occasion  of  mourning.  The 
famous  inscriptions  of  Telloh,  in  Chaldea,  make 
mention  of  them.  Herodotus  speaks  of  them  as 
employed  in  Egypt  in  his  day.  The  Hebrew 
prophets  make  mention  of  such  wailing  women ; 
as  when  Jeremiah  says,  in  view  of  the  dead  of 
Israel:  “Call  for  the  mourning  women,  that  they 
may  come;  and  send  for  the  cunning  women, 
that  they  may  come:  and  let  them  make  haste, 
and  take  up  a wailing  for  us;”^  and  as  when 
Amos  speaks  of  the  need  of  “such  as  are  skilful 
of  lamentation.”^ 

It  certainly  is  true  that  professional  wallers  are 
frequently  employed,  at  a time  of  mourning,  in 


* Jer.  9 : 17,  18. 


’ Amos  5 : 16. 


154  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

various  parts  of  the  East  to-day.  This  might 
seem  at  first  thought  to  be  a very  formal,  if  not 
indeed  a positively  heartless,  mode  of  evidencing 
one’s  grief  for  a dead  friend.  But  perhaps  it 
would  have  a somewhat  different  aspedl  to  us 
if  these  wailers  were  engaged  by  fours,  and 
were  called  “quartettes,”  or  “double  quartettes,” 
while  their  peculiar  notes  of  sympathetic  sorrow 
were  attuned  to  the  training  of  Occidental  ears. 
Certainly  we  cannot  say  that  the  voices  of  pro- 
fessional wailers  are  less  helpful  to  Orientals  who 
sorrow  in  sincerity,  because  of  their  sounding  in 
other  strains  than  those  in  which  non-religious 
professional  singers  sing  words  prescribed  for 
them  at  many  a funeral  service  in  our  portion 
of  the  globe. 

“You  must  not  suppose,”  says  Dr.  Thomson, 
in  writing  of  these  wailing-customs  in  Syria, 
“ that  there  is  no  genuine  sorrow  among  this 
people.  . . . Amid  all  this  ostentatious  parade 
there  are  burning  tears,  and  hearts  bursting  in 
agony  and  despair.”  In  Tally’s  narrative  of  life 
in  Tripoli  and  Morocco,  we  are  told  that  the  suf- 
ferings of  a bereaved  family  in  the  season  of 
wailing  over  the  dead  are  sometimes  “ shocking 


Funerals  and  Mournmg  in  the  East.  1 5 5 


to  behold.”  While  some  who  have  become  ac- 
customed to  such  scenes  do  not  suffer  so  acutely, 
“ there  are  many  who  from  their  great  affeblion 
for  the  departed,  and  their  delicacy  of  feelings, 
are  by  no  means  equal  to  these  strong  emotions  ; 
[and]  they  either  fall  a sacrifice  to  them  at  the 
moment,  or  languish  out  the  remainder  of  their 
days  in  a debilitated  state.” 

Orientals  are  emotional  and  demonstrative, 
and  their  tears  flow  freely  on  an  occasion  of 
sorrow.  They  feel  intensely,  and  they  give  full 
expression  to  their  feelings.  With  their  sympa- 
thetic natures,  they  are  able  to  weep  with  those 
who  weep^  almost  as  readily  as  they  would  weep 
on  their  own  account,  and  their  weeping  with 
others  is  a cause  of  intensified  emotion  to  those 
with  whom  they  weep. 

Describing  the  scenes  of  mourning  in  Bar- 
bary, Dr.  Thomas  Shaw,  an  English  traveler  of 
the  last  centur)^  says  that  among  the  hired 
wailers  on  such  occasions  there  are  some  “who, 
like  the  . . . mourning  women  of  old  ^ are  skilful 
in  lamentation,^  and  great  mistresses  of  these 
melancholy  expressions  ; and  indeed  they  per- 
^ Rom.  12  : 15.  “Jer.  9 : 17,  18.  ^ Amos  5 : 16. 


156  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

form  their  parts  with  such  proper  sounds,  ges- 
tures, and  commotions,  that  they  rarely  fail  to 
work  up  the  assembly  into  some  pitch  of  thought- 
fulness.” And  he  adds  that  the  British  resi- 
dents in  Barbary  have  “often  been  very  sensibly 
touched  with  these  lamentations,  whenever  they 
were  made  in  the  neighboring  houses.” 

The  tears  of  friends  in  a time  of  sorrow  are 
peculiarly  prized  in  the  East ; and,  even  though 
they  flow  so  freely  there,  they  are  sometimes 
caught  as  they  fall,  and  preserved  in  little  bot- 
tles or  flasks,  to  be  sealed  up  and  buried  with 
the  body  of  the  person  whose  death  caused 
their  flowing.  This  is  true  to-day,  and  it  was 
true  long  centuries  ago  ; for  these  tear-bottles 
are  unearthed  from  ancient  tombs  in  Egypt  and 
Syria.  Again  these  tear-bottles  with  their  pre- 
cious contents  are  preserved  among  the  living, 
instead  of  being  buried  with  the  dead. 

Morier,  describing  the  wailings  over  the  dead 
in  Persia,  says  : “ In  some  of  their  mournful  as- 
semblies, it  is  the  custom  for  a priest  to  go  about 
to  each  person  at  the  height  of  his  grief,  with  a 
piece  of  cotton  in  his  hand,  with  which  he  care- 
fully collects  the  falling  tears,  and  which  he  then 


Ftmerals  and  Mourning  in  the  East.  1 5 7 


squeezes  into  a bottle,  preserving  them  with  the 
greatest  caution.”  Morier  adds  that  “some  Per- 
sians believe  that  in  the  agony  of  death,  when 
all  medicines  have  failed,  a drop  of  tears,  so  col- 
ledled,  put  into  the  mouth  of  a dying  man,  has 
been  known  to  revive  him  ; and  it  is  for  such  use 
they  are  colledled.” 

Tears  of  sympathy  are  a portion  of  one’s  very 
self  given  out  for  another;  and  therefore  it  is, 
probably,  that  they  are  supposed  to  be  a means 
of  life  to  the  dying.  And  even  more  truly  than 
tears  does  one’s  blood  represent  one’s  life  ; hence 
we  find  that  mourners  in  the  ancient  East  were 
accustomed  to  cut  and  slash  themselves  over  the 
dead  as  if  in  evidence  of  their  willingness  to 
give  of  their  life  to  the  one  whose  life  was  ex- 
tindl.  And  there  are  traces  of  this  custom  also 
surviving  in  the  East. 

Of  the  mourning  at  one  of  the  scenes  already 
described  from  Tally’s  sketches  of  life  in  Morocco 
it  is  said:  “The  lamentations  of  the  servants, 
slaves,  and  people  hired  on  this  occasion,  were 
horrid.  With  their  nails  they  wounded  the  veins 
of  their  temples,  and,  causing  the  blood  to  flow 
in  streams,  sprinkled  it  over  the  bier,  while  they 


1 5 8 Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

repeated  the  song  of  death,  in  which  they  re- 
counted all  the  most  melancholy  circumstances 
they  had  collected  on  the  loss  of  Abderrahman 
[the  dead  man],  and  ended  every  painful  ac- 
count with  piercing  outcries  of  'loulliah  woo!’  in 
which  they  were  joined  by  the  whole  of  the  im- 
mense numbers  of  Moorish  mourners  that  were 
present.” 

In  other  regions  than  the  East,  where  this  cus- 
tom has  survived,  down  to  the  present  genera- 
tion, the  blood  is  sometimes  caught,  or  sopped, 
in  a cloth,  and  given,  when  dried,  to  the  relatives 
of  the  one  for  whom  it  was  shed.  For  instance, 
the  Rev.  William  Ellis,  an  English  missionary 
to  the  South  Sea  Islands,  in  the  early  part  of 
this  centur)^  describing  this  custom  as  he  found 
it  in  Polynesia,  said  : “The  females  on  these  oc- 
casions sometimes  put  on  a kind  of  short  apron 
of  a particular  sort  of  cloth,  which  they  held  up 
with  one  hand,  while  they  cut  themselves  with 
the  other.  In  this  apron  they  caught  the  blood 
that  flowed  from  these  grief- inflicded  wounds, 
until  it  was  almost  saturated.  It  was  then  dried 
in  the  sun,  and  given  to  the  nearest  surviving 
relations  as  a proof  of  the  affedtion  of  the  donor, 


Fimerals  and  Mourning  in  the  East.  159 


and  was  preserved  by  the  bereaved  family  as  a 
token  of  the  estimation  in  which  the  departed 
had  been  held.” 

There  is  something  analagous  to  this  preserva- 
tion of  the  tear-bottles  and  of  the  blood-stained 
cloths  as  memorials  for  the  living  in  a Chinese 
mourning  custom,  noted  by  Doolittle.  On  the 
death  of  a parent,  in  China,  where  there  is  no 
grandparent  to  be  chief  mourner,  “ it  is  custom- 
ary for  the  family  to  prepare  strips  of  narrow 
white  cloth,  about  two  feet  in  length  by  one  in 
width,”  to  be  “given  to  a class  of  relatives  who 
come  to  weep  with  the  family  of  the  dead.  A bit 
of  red  paper  is  pasted  on  each  piece”  of  cloth  ; 
red  being  the  color  of  life,  in  China,  as  white  is 
the  color  of  mourning.  “These  strips  of  white 
cloth  are  called  ‘ cloths  to  cry  with,’  and  are  de- 
signed to  be  used  for  wiping  away  the  tears,  and 
for  holding  up  to  the  face  or  eyes  of  the  weepers 
while  lamenting,  according  to  established  rule. 
. . . The  [tear-stained]  strips  are  always  taken 
away  by  their  owners  [the  weepers]  when  they 
return  home.” 

Strange  customs  these  ! No  one  of  us  would 
think  of  preserving  such  a memorial  of  our  weep- 


i6o  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

ing  and  mourning,  or  of  the  sorrowful  sympathy 
of  our  friends  in  our  bereavement.  Yet  it  is 
possible  that  some  one  of  us  might  be  moved  to 
preserve  a flower  from  the  coffin  of  a dead  dear 
one  ; and  most  of  us  have  seen  funeral  wreaths 
preserved,  dried  or  wax-covered,  and  framed  as 
a household  ornament ; or  again,  perhaps,  a 
name-plate  from  a coffin.  It  is  in  every  case 
only  a sentiment  that  prompts  to  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  memorial.  But  whether  the  Oriental’s 
sentiment  in  such  a case  is  less  profound  and 
tender  than  the  Occidental’s  may  be  a question  ; 
and,  again,  it  may  not  be. 

That  the  present  Oriental  mourning  customs 
were  all  of  them  known  in  the  days  of  the  Bible- 
writing,  is  evident  from  the  repeated  references 
to  them  in  the  text.  “Ye  shall  not  make  any 
cuttings  in  your  flesh  for  the  dead,”^  said  the 
Levitical  law,  in  prohibition  of  all  blood-letting 
over  the  bodies  of  the  dead.  “ Put  thou  my 
tears  into  thy  bottle,”^  is  the  call  of  David  to  his 
God,  as  he  asks  that  his  sorrow  and  its  cause  be 
remembered  of  the  Lord.  When  David  wept 
over  Saul  and  Jonathan,  he  “took  hold  on  his 
' Lev.  19  : 20  ; 21:5;  Deut.  14:1.  ’ Psa.  56  : 8. 


Funerals  and  Mourning  in  the  East.  i6i 


clothes,  and  rent  them  ; and  likewise  all  the  men 
that  were  with  him : and  they  mourned  [or, 
wailed],  and  wept.”^ 

Psalmists  and  prophets  make  use  of  expres- 
sions which  indicate  the  intense  and  demonstra- 
tive chara6ler  of  Oriental  weeping  and  wailing. 
Says  the  Psalmist : 

“ Every  night  make  I my  bed  to  swim  ; 

I water  my  couch  with  my  tears. 

Mine  eye  wasteth  away  because  of  grief.”  ^ 

“Mine  eyes  run  down  with  rivers  of  water.”® 

The  prophet  Jeremiah,  in  a time  of  national  sor- 
row, cries  out : “ Oh  that  my  head  were  waters, 
and  mine  eyes  a fountain  of  tears,  that  I might 
weep  day  and  night  for  the  slain  of  the  daughter 
of  my  people.”  The  prophet  Amos  foretells  the 
sad  day  when  “wailing  shall  be  in  all  the  broad 
ways,  and  they  shall  say  in  all  the  streets,  Alas  ! 
. . . And  in  all  vineyards  shall  be  wailing.”®  In 
the  gospel  narrative  of  the  coming  of  Jesus  to 
the  house  of  Jairus  to  raise  up  his  dead  daughter, 
it  is  said  that  he  found  already  there  “ many 
[persons]  weeping  and  wailing  greatly,”®  and 

* 2 Sam.  I : 1 1 , 1 2.  ® Psa.  6 : 6,  7. 

® Psa.  1 19  ; 136:  comp.  Lam.  i : 16;  3 : 48,  49. 

‘Jer.  9 : i.  ® Amos  5 : 16,  17.  ®Mark  5 : 38. 


i62 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


the  “ minstrels,”  or  “ the  flute-players,  and  the 
crowd  making  a tumult ^ just  as  would  be  the 
case  in  many  a home  in  Palestine  or  Egy^pt,  at 
the  present  time,  an  hour  after  a young  girl’s 
death. 

Now,  as  then,  in  the  East,  a burial  quickly  fol- 
lows a death.  The  necessities  of  the  climate  and 
of  the  cramped  quarters  in  the  houses  generally, 
promote  the  desire  for  this  ; and  there  is,  more- 
over, a popular  reluhfance  to  leave  a body  un- 
buried through  a single  night.  If  the  death 
occurs  early  in  the  day,  the  burial  follows  before 
sunset.  If  the  death  occurs  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  day,  the  burial  takes  place  the  next  morning. 
Meanwhile  the  wailing  over  the  dead  continues, 
with  but  brief  intervals,  from  the  hour  of  death 
until  the  removal  of  the  body  for  burial,  its 
most  vehement  intensity  being  renewed  at  that 
moment. 

A funeral  in  the  East  would  seem  to  be  the 
prototype  of  all  funerals  everj^vhere.  In  the 
streets  of  Cairo  I saw,  more  than  once,  an 
Oriental  funeral  procession  ; and  it  was  not  very 
different  from  a funeral  procession  in  Italy,  in  Ire- 
* Matt.  9 : 23. 


Funerals  and  Alourning  in  the  East.  1 63 


land,  in  Pennsylvania,  or  in  New  England.  In 
advance  came  a number  of  men,  two  by  two, 
chanting  religious  sentences  in  a monotonous 
and  gloomy  strain.  These  were  followed  by  boys, 
also  two  by  two.  Then  came  the  bier,  on  which 
lay  the  body,  uncoffined,  but  covered  with  a 
shawl,  or  pall.  This  bier  was  borne  on  the 
shoulders  of  four  persons  at  a time  ; the  bearers 
being  changed  from  time  to  time  along  the  route. 

Following  the  bier  were  the  mourning  women 
relatives,  with  veiled  faces,  weeping  and  wailing 
with  Oriental  demonstrativeness.  As  the  pro- 
cession passed  on  toward  the  grave  it  grew  in 
numbers  ; for  in  the  East,  as  in  the  West,  it  is 
considered  meritorious  to  join  a funeral  proces- 
sion, and  yet  more  so  to  put  one’s  shoulder  under 
the  bier  for  a brief  season.  There,  as  here,  a 
person  who  would  deem  it  a small  matter  to  min- 
ister to  the  living,  or  to  walk  after  an  ambulance 
carrying  a sick  man  to  the  hospital,  would  count 
it  both  a privilege  and  a duty  to  follow  the 
funeral  procession  of  even  a stranger  toward  his 
grave. 

This  idea,  indeed,  of  a formal  and  orderly  and 
extended  procession  accompanying  a body  to  its 


164  Studies  in  Oi'iental  Social  Life. 

last  resting-place,  would  seem  to  be  coeval  with 
the  earliest  history  of  the  human  race.  Pictures 
of  imposing  funeral  processions  bearing  the  em- 
balmed body  to  its  prepared  tomb  appear  among 
the  prominent  decorations  of  the  ancient  temples 
and  tombs  of  Egypt,  and  elaborate  descriptions 
of  these  funeral  processions  are  found  in  the 
most  ancient  Egyptian  literature.  There  would 
seem  to  be  something  more  than  a utilitarian 
aspe(5l  to  a formal  procession  in  connedlion  with 
a funeral,  as  also  with  a wedding,  in  the  East. 
Indeed,  the  religious  sentiment  has,  from  primeval 
times,  been  inclined  to  manifest  itself  in  proces- 
sions, as  if  in  recognition  of  the  pilgrim  nature 
of  human  life  ; and  the  prominent  stages  of  the 
earthly  existence,  at  the  entering  of  the  marriage 
state,  and  at  the  passing  away  from  earth,  are 
fittingly  signalized  by  these  pilgrimage  proces- 
sions. 

The  main  features  of  these  funeral  processions 
have  been  much  the  same  from  the  beginning 
until  now.  The  bier,  the  pall,  the  bearers,  the 
mourning  relatives  and  the  following  friends, — 
all  of  which  can  be  seen  at  funerals  in  our  land 
to-day, — were  to  be  seen  in  Egypt  in  the  days  of 


Funerals  and  ]\Iotirning  in  the  East. 


165 


the  earlier  Pharaohs.  Even  the  long  flowing 
black  hat-bands,  or  scarfs,  which  are  worn  so 
generally  by  pall-bearers  and  others  at  funerals 
in  England,  and  sometimes  in  this  country,  are 
often  worn  by  relatives  of  the  dead  in  an 
Egyptian  funeral  procession ; and  they  are  also 
represented  on  the  heads  of  mourning  women  in 
the  tombs  of  ancient  Egypt. 

A feast  is  an  accompaniment  of  a funeral,  in 
Egypt,  Arabia,  and  Syria,  and  elsewhere.  This 
custom  seems  to  have  a religious  origin.  It 
apparently  includes  the  idea  of  a sacrifice,  with 
the  outpouring  of  the  blood  of  the  animals 
slaughtered  on  the  occasion,  and  also  of  a cove- 
nanting with  the  dead  in  the  sharing  of  the  food 
provided  at  the  burial.  Burckhardt  tells  of  an 
invitation  he  received  to  a funeral  feast  in  Nubia, 
where  a cow  had  been  slaughtered,  and  its  meat 
distributed  among  the  people  of  the  neighbor- 
hood. At  two  hours’  distance  from  the  village  he 
“met  women  with  plates  upon  their  heads,  who 
had  been  receiving  their  share  of  the  meat.” 

Of  such  funeral  feasts  he  says : “ Cows  are  killed 
only  by  people  of  consequence,  on  the  death  of  a 
near  relation  ; the  common  people  content  them- 


1 66  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

selves  with  a sheep  or  a goat,  the  flesh  of  which 
is  equally  distributed  ; the  poorer  class  distribute 
bread  only  at  the  grave  of  the  deceased.”  In 
one  case,  Burckhardt  found  a man  in  Berber 
slaughtering  a cow  for  a relative  “who  died 
several  months  before,  in  the  time  of  famine, 
when  it  was  impossible  to  find  a cow  to  slaugh- 
ter for  that  purpose.”  This  also  would  seem  to 
indicate  that  the  funeral  feast  is  a religious 
observance,  rather  than  a utilitarian  custom ; 
althoimh  here  as^ain  the  feast  was  shared  with 
the  multitude.  “ Many  poor  people  were  treated, 
in  the  courtyard,  with  broth,  and  the  roasted 
flesh  of  the  cow,  while  the  choice  morsels  were 
presented  to  the  friends  of  Edris  [the  provider 
of  the  feast].” 

Referring-  to  the  common  habit,  among  the 
Syrians,  of  sending  out  gifts  of  food  after  the 
funeral  to  friends  and  neighbors,  “ in  the  name 
of  the  dead,”  Dr.  Thomson  says;  “A  custom 
prevails  among  the  Bedawin  Arabs,  and  espe- 
cially those  around  the  Huleh,  which  illustrates 
this  whole  subject.  When  one  of  their  number 
dies,  they  immediately  bring  his  best  o.x  or 
buffalo  and  slaughter  it  near  to  the  body  of  the 


Funerals  and  Mourning  in  the  East.  167 


deceased.  They  then  cook  it  all  for  a great 
feast,  with  burghul,  rice,  and  whatever  else  good 
to  eat  they  may  possess.  The  whole  tribe,  and 
neighbors  also,  assemble  for  the  funeral,  and  go 
direcl:  from  the  grave  to  this  sacrificial  feast. 
The  vast  piles  of  provisions  quickly  disappear  ; 
for  the  Bedawin  dispatch  their  dinners  with  a 
rapidity  that  would  astound  a table  d' hole  at  a 
Western  railway  station.  However,  every  one 
must  partake  at  least  of  a morsel.  It  is  a duty 
to  the  departed,  and  must  be  eaten  in  behalf 
of  the  dead.  Even  strangers  passing  along  are 
constrained  to  come  and  taste  of  the  feast.”  So 
obligatory  is  the  custom  of  this  funeral  feast 
“ that  it  must  be  observed  though  it  consume 
every  item  of  property  and  of  provisions  the 
man  possessed,  and  leave  the  wife  and  children 
to  starve.” 

Dr.  Thomson  points  out  an  apparent  refer- 
ence to  this  Oriental  custom  in  an  avowal  of 
the  ancient  Jew’s  fidelity  in  his  consecrated  use 
of  the  sacred  tithe  of  his  field’s  increase.  “ I 
have  not  eaten  thereof  in  my  mourning,”  he  was 
called  to  say;  “nor  given  thereof  for  the  dead.”^ 


Deut.  26  : 14. 


1 68  Studies  in  Orie7ttal  Social  Life. 

This  would  show  the  antiquity  of  this  custom. 
Of  its  survival  even  here  in  the  West  there  are 
many  tokens.  An  Irish  “wake”  includes  pro- 
vision for  the  inner  man  of  the  mourners  ; and 
“the  funeral  baked  meats,”  to  which  Shake- 
speare refers,  have  been  known  as  an  expensive 
accompaniment  of  funerals  in  the  rural  communi- 
ties of  New  England  in  my  younger  days  ; and  I 
presume  they  are  not  yet  wholly  done  away  with 
in  England  or  America. 

Increased  display  in  all  the  appointments  of 
the  funerals  of  those  who  have  occupied  exalted 
station,  or  who  have  been  held  in  exceptional 
esteem,  has  been  as  prominent  a feature  in  the 
East  as  in  the  West.  There  were  costly  cata- 
falques and  cars  and  barges  for  the  bearing  of 
the  body,  and  elaborately  wrought  and  orna- 
mented coffins  for  its  covering,  in  ancient  Egypt; 
and  even  in  these  later  days,  in  that  land,  a 
funeral  procession  sometimes  includes  the  favor- 
ite horses  of  the  dead  man,  and  also  buffaloes, 
which  are  to  be  slaughtered  at  the  grave,  and 
camels  bearing  other  food  for  distribution  there. 
The  procession  itself  is  perhaps  swelled  by  the 
members  of  various  organizations  with  their  re- 


Fimerals  and  Mourning  in  the  East.  1 69 


speclive  banners  or  standards.  And  the  longer 
the  cavalcade  the  more  honor  to  the  dead. 

The  Bible  story  tells  of  an  impressive  funeral 
procession  going  up  out  of  Egypt  into  Canaan 
some  thirty -five  centuries  ago.  The  patriarch 
Jacob  had  died  in  Egypt.  His  body  had  been 
embalmed  there.  Seventy  days  of  formal  weep- 
ing for  him  had  been  observed.  After  that, 
Joseph  had  requested  the  royal  permission  to 
bear  his  father’s  mummied  body  across  the  desert, 
to  lay  it  away  in  the  patriarchal  family  tomb  at 
Hebron.  This  permission  was  granted. 

“And  Joseph  went  up  to  bury  his  father:  and 
with  him  went  up  all  the  servants  of  Pharaoh,  the 
elders  of  his  house,  and  ...  all  the  house  of  Jo- 
seph, and  his  brethren,  and  his  father’s  house.  . . . 
And  there  went  up  with  him  both  chariots  and 
horsemen  : and  it  was  a very  great  company. 
And  they  came  to  the  threshing-floor  of  Atad, 
which  is  beyond  Jordan,  and  there  they  lamented 
with  a very  great  and  sore  lamentation  [or,  wailed 
with  a very  great  and  sore  wailing  ; the  Hebrew 
word  employed  here  signifying  that  breast-beat- 
ing which  accompanies  the  Oriental  wailings  for 
the  dead]  : and  he  made  a mourning  [a  season 


1 70  Studies  in  Oriental  Soeial  Life. 

of  this  grief-showing]  for  his  father  seven  days. 
And  when  the  inhabitants  of  the  land,  the 
Canaanites,  saw  the  mourning  in  the  floor  of 
Atad,  they  said,  This  is  a grievous  mourning  to 
the  Egyptians.”  ' And  they  gave  a name  to  that 
place,  in  memory  of  that  impressive  scene  of 
Oriental  lamentations. 

It  is  the  survival  of  the  sentiment  expressed  in 
that  funeral  procession  which  bore  the  patriarch 
Jacob  to  his  tomb,  which  has  shown  itself  in 
these  later  days  in  the  funeral  processions  at  the 
burial  of  Napoleon  in  Paris,  of  Wellington  in 
London,  of  Grant  in  New  York,  and  of  Sheridan 
in  Washington.  That  sentiment  is  deeply  fixed 
in  the  nature  of  man.  It  cannot  be  eradicated. 
At  the  best  it  can  with  difficulty  be  controlled. 
In  fa(5l,  the  agreeing  upon  desirable  reforms  in 
funeral  customs  is  easier  than  the  securing  of 
their  adoption. 

Muhammad  forbade  the  conventional  wailing 
by  women  at  a funeral,  and  the  reciting  of  the  vir- 
tues of  the  deceased  while  following  him  to  the 
tomb  ; but  the  followers  of  Muhammad  adhere 
to  both  these  customs.  Roman  Catholic  priests 

*Gen.  50  : i-ii. 


Funerals  and  Mourning  in  the  East.  1 71 


have  issued  many  a caution  to  their  poor  parish- 
ioners to  refrain  from  multiplying  carriages  in  a 
funeral  procession  but  the  funeral  processions 
are  not  perceptibly  shorter  for  these  cautions. 
No  dictates  of  prudence,  nor  counsels  of  sound 
advisers,  seem  able  to  induce  the  average  family 
of  moderate  means  to  refrain  from  taking  the 
sorely  needed  money  of  the  living  to  extend  the 
funeral  procession  of  the  dead,  in  our  own  day 
and  land.  And  the  reason  for  all  this,  or  the 
sentiment  which  is  the  cause  of  all  this,  must  be 
looked  for  in  the  significance  of  the  funeral  cus- 
toms of  the  primitive  East. 

Apart  from  those  distinctively  religious  services 
at  the  burial  of  the  dead  in  the  East,  which  are 
direCtly  shaped  by  the  special  tenets  of  the  vari- 
ous schools  of  religious  thought  in  the  world, 
there  are  many  purely  primitive  customs  in  con- 
nection with  funerals  and  burials,  retained  more 
or  less  generally  among  Oriental  peoples.  One 
of  these  is  the  habit  of  calling  on  the  living  to 
bear  witness  to  the  fitness  of  the  dead  for  a life 
beyond  the  grave,  or  to  bear  their  part  in  fitting 
him  for  that  life.  Thus  in  modern  Egypt,  as 
Lane  tells  us,  at  the  close  of  the  prayer  for  the 


172  Studies  in  Oidental  Social  Life. 

repose  of  the  spirit  of  the  deceased,  the  Muham- 
madan leader  of  the  funeral  services  says  to 
those  present,  “ Give  your  testimony  respecling 
him,”  and  their  answer  comes  back,  “ He  was  of 
the  virtuous  and  not  until  then  can  the  body 
be  borne  from  the  mosk  to  the  grave. 

In  illustration  of  a kindred  sentiment  to  this, 
in  Palestine,  Miss  Rogers  says  that,  in  the 
Greek  Church  there,  it  is  the  custom  of  the 
officiating  priest  to  ask  pardon  of  the  living  for 
the  dead  before  the  body  is  removed  from  the 
church  to  the  place  of  burial. 

She  instances  the  funeral  of  one  Khaleel 
Sekhali,  at  Haifa,  where,  at  the  close  of  the  ser- 
vice, “ the  chief  priest  said  to  the  congregation, 
‘ Dear  brethren  and  children,  Khaleel  Sekhali 
was  a man  who  lived  very  long  in  this  world. 
He  has  had  a great  deal  of  business,  and  has 
been  in  communication  with  a great  number  of 
people.  It  is  possible  that  in  certain  transaHions 
he  may  have  given  cause  for  offense.  Some  per- 
sons may  have  felt  themselves  insulted,  some 
may  have  been  grieved  or  offended,  either  with 
or  without  reason.  This  now  is  the  time  for  par- 
don, and  I hereby  beseech  you  all  present,  and 


Funerals  and  Mourning  in  the  East.  1 73 


by  the  blessing  of  God  I implore  you  all  to  par- 
don him  fully,  to  forgive  him  all  offenses,  as  you 
hope  to  be  forgiven.  The  whole  congregation 
then  answered,  ‘ May  God  pardon  him  ! ’ ” 

As  showing  that  this  is  a survival  of  a primi- 
tive custom,  we  find  that  in  ancient  Egypt  the 
right  of  burial  was  granted  only  to  those  who 
were  acquitted  of  evil-doing  by  a tribunal  of 
their  survivors.  As  Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson  says, 
even  “ the  most  influential  individual  could  not  be 
admitted  to  the  very  tomb  he  had  built  for  him- 
self, until  acquitted  before  that  tribunal  which  sat 
to  judge  his  conduct  during  life.”  The  king  him- 
self could  be  kept  from  burial,  by  charges  against 
him,  from  his  subjedls,  proved  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  judges  who  passed  on  his  worthiness. 

All  along  through  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  there 
are  references  to  the  lack  of  burial  as  the  con- 
sequence of  sin  and  crime.  Thus  in  the  Prov- 
erbs it  is  said  : 

“ The  eye  that  mocketh  at  his  father, 

And  despiseth  to  obey  his  mother, 

The  ravens  of  the  valley  shall  pick  it  out. 

And  the  young  eagles  shall  eat  it  ” * 


^ Prov.  30  : 17. 


174  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

The  meaning  of  this  would  seem  to  be,  not — as 
I supposed  while  a boy — that  a special  judgment 
of  God  is  to  bring  a rebellious  son  to  a violent 
death,  but  that  in  man’s  judgment  rebellion 
against  a parent  will  be  deemed  a sufficient 
cause  for  refusingr  burial  to  the  unnatural  son. 
Yet  the  lack  of  burial  would  have  been  deemed 
a sore  judgment  of  God  against  any  person  in 
the  ancient  East, 

Thus  the  bitterest  prophecy  of  Elisha  pro- 
claimed against  the  idolatrous  queen  of  Israel 
was:  “And  the  dogs  shall  eat  Jezebel  in  the 
portion  of  Jezreel,  and  there  shall  be  none  to 
bury  her.”  ^ And  in  Isaiah’s  prophecy  against 
Babylon,  the  gloomy  declaration  stands:  “All 
the  kings  of  the  nations,  all  of  them,  sleep  in 
glory,  every  one  in  his  own  house.  But  thou  art 
cast  away  from  thy  sepulchre  like  an  abominable 
branch,  clothed  with  the  slain,  that  are  thrust 
through  with  the  sword,  that  go  down  to  the 
stones  of  the  pit ; as  a carcase  trodden  under 
foot.  Thou  shalt  not  be  joined  with  them  in 
burial,  because  thou  hast  destroyed  thy  land, 
thou  hast  slain  thy  people.”^ 

* 2 Kings  9 : lo. 


’ Isa.  14  : 18-20. 


Funerals  and  Mourning  in  the  East,  175 


The  fa(T  that  Orientals  were  familiar  with  this 
custom  of  being  called  on  to  pass  judgment  on 
the  dead,  and  to  say  whether  they  would  give 
or  refuse  forgiveness  to  those  who  lay  dead  be- 
fore them,  must  have  put  added  meaning  into 
some  of  the  words  of  Jesus  to  his  disciples,  as 
those  words  fell  on  the  ears  of  Orientals.  Thus  : 
“Judge  not,  that  ye  be  not  judged.  For  with 
what  judgement  ye  judge,  ye  shall  be  judged  : 
and  with  what  measure  ye  mete,  it  shall  be 
measured  unto  you.”  ^ And  so  again  that  peti- 
tion in  the  Lord’s  Prayer : “ Forgive  us  our 

debts,  as  we  also  have  forgiven  our  debtors  ; ” ^ 
with  the  comment  upon  it : “ For  if  ye  forgive 
men  their  trespasses,  your  heavenly  Father  will 
also  forgive  you.  But  if  ye  forgive  not  men  their 
trespasses,  neither  will  your  P'ather  forgive  your 
trespasses.”  ^ 

Another  of  the  primitive  customs  in  connedlion 
with  Oriental  funerals  is  the  preparation  of  sup- 
plies for  the  dead  in  the  realms  beyond  the 
grave.  Burckhardt  tells  of  seeing  white  pebbles 
strewn  over  a grave  in  Nubia,  with  the  thought 
that  the  soul  of  the  deceased  might  find  them 

* Matt.  7:1,2.  ^ Matt.  6 ; 12  ; Luke  n : 4.  ^ Matt  6 : 14,15. 


1 76  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

convenient  in  telling  his  prayers;  for  the  rosary 
has  its  origin  in  a primitive  Oriental  custom. 
We  know  from  the  disclosures  of  the  tombs  of 
Eg)’pt  that  the  ancient  Egyptians  were  accus- 
tomed to  provide  food  for  the  dead,  leaving  a 
full  supply  of  it  in  their  last  resting-place.  This 
custom  still  survives  in  China,  in  Russia,  and  in 
portions  of  Africa,  Even  among  the  Chinese  in 
America  it  is  adhered  to.  At  the  entrance  of  a 
receiving-tomb  of  the  Chinese  in  a cemetery  near 
San  Francisco,  I saw  supplies  of  food  provided 
for  the  dead  whose  bodies  were  there  awaiting  a 
removal  to  the  land  of  their  birth.  While  a 
Brahman  in  India  lies  waiting  for  burial,  boiled 
rice  and  water  are  supplied  afresh  each  day  for 
the  use  of  the  deceased. 

This  custom,  like  many  another  Oriental  cus- 
tom, is  found  among  the  North  American  Indians, 
together  with  that  of  burjnng  garments  and  war- 
weapons,  and  dogs  and  horses,  for  use  by  the 
dead  in  his  spiritual  existence.  Similarly,  in 
equatorial  and  Southern  Africa,  the  wives  of  a 
dead  king  or  chieftain,  with  other  attendants,  are 
killed,  and  buried  with  him,  in  order  to  be  his 
companions  or  servitors  in  the  life  that  follows 


Funerals  and  Mourning  in  the  East. 


177 


this.  The  sentiment  that  underlies  this  custom 
is  apparently  at  the  bottom  of  the  practice  of 
wife-burning  in  India;  as,  also,  of  practices  akin 
to  this  among  primitive  peoples  all  the  world 
over. 

Although  the  burial  quickly  follows  death  in 
many  portions  of  the  East,  the  more  violent 
mourning  over  the  dead  is  by  no  means  at  an 
end  with  the  burial.  It  is  a primitive  Oriental 
idea  that  the  spirit  of  the  deceased  remains  with, 
or  hovers  over,  the  body  for  several  days  after 
death.  Three  days  are  understood  to  be  the 
limit  of  this  lingering  of  the  spirit ; as  three  days 
are  the  ordinary  limit  of  a guest’s  right  to  be 
provided  for  by  any  Oriental  host  whom  he  may 
eleCl,  and  as  “ three  days  of  grace  ” are  deemed  a 
proper  allowance  of  time  in  the  performance  of 
any  contract,  all  the  world  over.  During  these 
three  days  the  spirit  of  the  dead  is  deemed  as  in 
a sense  within  hearing  of  the  body,  and  the  wail- 
ing calls  on  the  dead  by  the  mourning  relatives 
are  repeated  accordingly,  as  at  the  hour  of  death. 

It  would  seem  to  have  been  in  view  of  this 
Oriental  idea  that  INIartha,  the  sister  of  Lazarus 

of  Bethany,  protested  against  the  opening  of 

12 


178  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

her  brother’s  grave,  when  he  had  already  “ been 
dead  four  days,”  and  when,  therefore  his  body 
was  beyond  the  hope  of  reviving.  ^ And  because 
Jesus  rose  from  the  dead  on  the  third  day,  his 
disciples  could  see  in  his  resurredlion  a fulfilment 
of  the  prophecy  in  the  Psalms  that  the  Messiah’s 
flesh  should  not  “see  corruption.”^  Peter,  re- 
ferring to  this  point,  says  that  David  could  not 
have  been  speaking  of  himself  in  this  prophecy  ; 
for  David  remained  in  his  grave  indefinitely;  but 
that  by  prophecy  David  “spake  of  the  resurrec- 
tion of  the  Christ,  [in  accordance  with  the  fadt] 
that  neither  was  he  left  in  Hades,  nor  did  his 
flesh  see  corruption.”^  It  was  in  order  to  make 
sure  that  the  dead  had  remained  dead,  that  the 
tomb  was  opened  on  the  third  day,  as  suggested 
in  the  visit  of  the  women  to  the  sepulcher  of 
Jesus. 

\dolent  mourning  does  not,  indeed,  end  with 
the  three  days  which  follow  a death,  in  the  East. 
Like  the  marriage  festivities,  the  funeral  cere- 
monies are  often  continued  through  seven  days 
and  nights,  and  as  feastings  and  rejoicings  are 
the  main  features  of  the  marriage  celebration,  so 
’ John  1 1 : 39.  ’ Psa.  16  : 10.  ’ Acts  2 : 22-32. 


Funerals  and  Mourning  in  the  East.  179 


feastings  and  wailings  are  the  prominent  char- 
acteristics of  the  funeral  week.  When  the  patri- 
arch Job  was  mourning  his  dead,  his  friends,  as  in 
duty  bound,  “ made  an  appointment  together  to 
come  to  bemoan  him  and  to  comfort  him  ” — with 
a hearty  wailing.  And  when  they  were  in  sight 
of  him  “ they  lifted  up  their  voice,  and  wept ; and 
they  rent  every  one  his  mantle,  and  sprinkled 
dust  upon  their  heads  toward  heaven.  So  they 
sat  down  with  him  upon  the  ground  seven  days 
and  seven  nights,  and  none  spake  a word  unto 
him  [although  they  wailed  over  his  lot]  : for  they 
saw  that  his  grief  was  very  great.”  ^ 

Miss  Rogers,  describing  one  of  these  weeks  of 
weeping,  which  she  witnessed  in  Palestine,  says  : 
“I  joined  the  mourners  on  the  third  day.  As 
soon  as  I entered  the  house,  I heard  the  minstrels 
and  the  loud  cries  of  the  people.  ...  I was  led 
into  a large  long  room.  Women  were  sitting  on 
the  floor  in  rows  on  two  sides  of  it.  An  open 
space  was  left  down  the  middle  to  the  end  of  the 
room,  where  the  widow  sat  apart,  with  her  two 
youngest  children  lying  at  her  feet.  Her  hair 
was  disheveled,  and  she  wore  no  covering  on  her 
•Job  2 : 11-13. 


i8o 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


head.  Her  eyelids  were  swollen  with  weeping, 
and  her  face  pale  with  watching.  She  looked  as 
if  she  had  suddenly  grown  old.  Her  dress  was 
rent  and  disordered. 

“She  had  not  rested  or  changed  her  garments 
since  she  heard  the  tidings  of  her  husband’s 
death.  She  kissed  me  passionately,  and  said, 
‘Weep  for  me,  he  is  dead;’  and  then,  pointing 
to  her  children,  she  said,  ‘ Weep  for  them,  they 
are  fatherless.’  I sat  near  to  her.  One  of  her 
children,  who  was  about  three  years  old,  crept 
into  my  lap,  and  whispered,  ‘ My  father  is  dead.’ 
Then  he  closed  his  eyes,  and  pressed  his  chubby 
little  fingers  tightly  over  them,  saying,  ‘ My 
father  is  dead  like  this — he  is  in  the  dark.’ 

“ The  wailing,  which  had  been  slightly  inter- 
rupted at  my  entrance,  was  renewed  with  vigor. 
. . . There  were  many  women  from  Nazareth  and 
Shefa  ’Amer  and  other  villages.  They  had  un- 
covered their  heads  and  unbraided  their  hair. 
They  looked  dreadfully  excited.  Their  eyes  were 
red  with  weeping  and  v.'atching.  The  air  of  the 
room  was  close  and  heated ; for  the  widow  and 
chief  mourners  had  remained  there  for  three  days 
and  two  nights  without  rest,  receiving  guests  who 


Funerals  and  Motirning  in  the  East.  1 8 1 


came  to  mourn  with  them.  The  room  was  always 
filled  ; for  as  soon  as  one  set  of  people  left,  an- 
other set  came  in.  . . . Three  rows  of  women  sat 
on  the  matted  floor  on  the  right-hand  side,  facing 
three  rows  on  the  left.  They  were  all  clapping 
their  hands  or  striking  their  bosoms,  in  time  with 
the  monotonous  melody  which  they  murmured. 

“ Presently  an  especial  lamentation  was  com- 
menced, to  which  I was  invited  to  respond.  I 
was  still  seated  at  the  end  of  the  room  near  to 
the  widow.  The  women  on  my  left  hand,  led 
by  a celebrated  professional  mourner  [the  Ori- 
ental soprano],  sang  these  eulogistic  words  with 
vigor  and  energy  : 

‘ We  saw  him  in  the  midst  of  the  company  of  riders, 

Riding  bravely  on  his  horse,  the  horse  he  loved  ! ’ 

The  women  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  room 
answered  in  a lower  and  more  plaintive  key, 
beating  their  breasts  mournfully: 

‘ Alas  ! no  more  shall  we  see  him 
In  the  midst  of  the  company  of  riders. 

Riding  bravely  on  his  horse,  the  horse  he  loved.’ 

The  first  singers  sang  : 

‘We  saw  him  in  the  garden,  the  pleasant  garden. 

With  his  companions,  and  his  children,  the  children  he  loved.’ 


1 82  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

The  second  singers  answered  : 

‘ Alas  ! no  more  shall  we  see  him 
In  the  garden,  the  pleasant  garden, 

With  his  companions,  and  his  children,  the  children  he  loved.’ 

Chorus  of  all  the  women,  singing  softly  : 

‘ His  children  and  his  servants  blessed  him  ! 

His  home  was  the  shelter  of  happiness  ! 

Peace  be  upon  him  ! ’ 

First  singers — loudly  and  with  animation,  [in  rec- 
ognition of  the  primeval  standard  of  character 
exhibited  in  hospitality :] 

‘ We  saw  him  giving  food  to  the  hungry. 

And  clothing  to  the  naked.’ 

Second  singers — softly  and  plaintively  : 

‘Alas  ! no  more  shall  we  see  him 
Give  food  to  the  hungry. 

And  garments  to  the  naked ! ’ 

First  singers  : 

‘ We  saw  him  give  help  and  succor  to  the  aged, 

And  good  counsel  to  the  young.’ 

Second  singers: 


‘ Alas  ! no  more  shall  we  see  him 
Give  help  and  succor  to  the  aged, 
And  good  counsel  to  the  young.’ 


Funerals  and  Mour7iing  in  the  East.  1 83 


Chorus  of  all  the  women,  singing  softly  : 

■ He  suffered  not  the  stranger  to  sleep  in  the  streets : 

He  opened  his  door  to  the  wayfarer. 

Peace  be  upon  him  ! ’ 

After  this  they  started  to  their  feet,  and  shrieked 
as  loudly  as  they  could,  making  a rattling  noise 
in  their  throats  for  three  or  four  minutes.  The 
widow  kneeled,  swaying  her  body  backward  and 
forward,  and  feebly  joined  in  the  wild  cry.”  And 
with  a repetition  of  such  scenes  and  sounds  as 
these  the  seven  days  of  mourning  are  continued 
in  the  East. 

Beyond  the  funeral  week,  the  period  of  special 
mourning  for  the  dead  is  extended,  in  different 
portions  of  the  East,  to  thirty  days,  to  forty,  to 
seventy,  to  one  hundred  ; to  a year,  or  even  to 
two  or  three  years,  with  seasons  of  renewed  wail- 
ing at  stated  intervals  during  that  entire  period. 
Describing  these  seasons  of  mourning  in  Upper 
Egy^pt,  with  their  sounds  of  ” such  a sorrowful, 
slow,  monotonous  song  of  lamentation,  . . . min- 
gled with  weeping  and  sobbing,  that  it  thrills 
painfully  through  bone  and  marrow,”  Klunzinger 
says;  “Thus  for  years  does  a mother  or  wife 
bewail  one  whom  she  has  loved  and  lost,  on  cer- 


184 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


tain  days  of  the  week,  or  on  certain  days  of  the 
year  consecrated  to  the  memory  of  the  dead,  col- 
lecting her  female  friends,  relatives,  and  neigh- 
bors, and  especially  pradliced  mourning  women, 
in  order  to  relieve  her  sorrowful  heart,  and  to 
have  the  virtues  of  the  deceased  duly  sung;  while 
the  men  gather  round  them  a company  of  their 
friends,  and  cause  the  Koran  to  be  read  in  mem- 
ory of  their  lost  ones.” 

\"ambery  says  that,  among  the  Toorkomans, 
“ it  is  the  practice,  in  the  tent  of  the  departed 
one,  each  day  for  a whole  year,  without  excep- 
tion, at  the  same  hour  that  he  drew  his  last 
breath,  for  female  mourners  to  chant  the  cus- 
tomary dirges,  in  which  the  members  of  the 
family  present  are  expedled  to  join.”  Vambery 
adds  that  the  members  of  the  family  who  have  a 
part  in  this  mourning  are  not  expedled  to  inter- 
mit “ their  ordinary  daily  employments  and  occu- 
pations ” for  this  purpose.  Indeed,  he  says.  “ it 
is  quite  ridiculous  to  see  how  the  Turkoman 
polishes  his  arms  and  smokes  his  pipe,  or  de- 
vours his  meal,  to  the  accompaniment  of  these 
frightful  veils  of  sorrow.  A similar  thing  occurs 
with  the  women,  who,  seated  in  the  smaller  cir- 


Funerals  and  Mourning  in  the  East.  185 


cumference  of  the  tent  itself,  are  wont  to  join  in 
the  chant,  to  cry  and  weep  in  the  most  plaintive 
manner,  while  they  are  at  the  same  time  clean- 
ing wool,  spinning,  or  performing  some  other 
duty  of  household  industry.” 

It  is  very  easy  to  point  out  ridiculous  aspecds 
of  social  customs  that  are  wholly  unlike  those 
with  which  we  are  familiar ; and  perhaps  no 
phase  of  Oriental  social  life  has  been  more  fruit- 
ful of  ridicule  or  contempt,  among  Occidentals, 
than  its  peculiarities  of  mourning.  Christian 
observers  have  indeed  declared  that  “ in  ninety- 
nine  cases  out  of  a hundred,  this  public  mani- 
festation [of  grief  over  the  dead  in  the  East]  is 
the  work  of  that  arch-tyrant,  custom,  and  noth- 
ing more,”  and  that  at  the  best  “it  is  artificial, 
hypocritical,  slavish.”  Yet  “ every  heart  is  hu- 
man ; ” and  if  we  begin  by  saying  that  no  grief 
can  be  sincere  on  the  part  of  those  who  recog- 
nize the  obligations  of  custom  in  its  public  expres- 
sion, and  that  it  is  simply  ridiculous  for  a mother 
to  sing  a dirge  in  memory  of  her  long-ago  dead 
son  while  busy  at  her  daily  work  for  the  liv- 
ing, which  must  be  done  even  though  the  heart 
aches  to  breaking,  we  shall  find  that  others  than 


1 86  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

Orientals  are  excluded  by  us  from  “ the  high 
prerogative  of  grief.” 

Custom  in  the  matter  of  public  mourning  has 
large  prevalence  in  the  primitive  East,  as  it  has 
in  the  conventional  West ; but  a comparison  of 
the  requirements  of  custom  in  this  matter  there 
and  here,  would  certainly  not  tend  to  prove  the 
greater  insincerity  of  feeling  on  the  part  of  Ori- 
entals. The  first  movement  of  an  Oriental  in 
expression  of  grief,  beyond  a cr)^  is  in  the  direc- 
tion of  rendering  one’s  self  and  one’s  dress  unat- 
tractive if  not  absolutely  repulsive.  The  woman 
must  dishevel  her  hair,  must  besmear  her  face 
and  hands,  must  divest  herself  of  jewels  and 
ornaments,  must  scrupulously  refrain  from  any 
course  which  would  seem  to  indicate  a regard  for 
her  personal  appearance.  She  must,  during  the 
intensity  of  the  first  few  days  of  mourning,  refrain 
from  both  food  and  sleep.  Afterwards  she  must 
wear  coarser  clothing  than  before,  or  the  finer 
clothing  must  be  soiled  or  deprived  of  all  show 
of  newness. 

It  will  hardly  be  claimed  that  Oriental  custom, 
or  fashion,  so  far,  is  designed  or  followed  in  the 
interest  of  a woman’s  self-seeking  insincerity. 


Funerals  and  Mourning  in  the  East.  187 


An  Oriental  woman  may,  indeed,  in  the  hour  of 
her  bereavement,  send  for  hired  wailers,  to  sound 
in  her  ears  the  cries  of  sorrow  that  are  in  keep- 
ing with  her  sad  feelings  ; but  she  would  never 
think  of  sending,  at  such  a time,  for  hired  mil- 
liners and  dressmakers,  to  arrange  attractive 
articles  of  dress  of  the  choicest  mourning-material 
available,  and  in  the  most  tasteful  style  of  the 
current  mourning  garb.  She  may  put  too  high 
a value  on  the  bottled  tears  of  sympathy  given 
to  her  by  her  mourning  friends  ; but  she  would 
never  think  of  adorning  herself  with  jet  jewelry 
as  a token  of  her  comfortless  sorrow. 

Instead  of  bowing  the  window-shutters  for  a 
prescribed  period  after  the  funeral,  in  order  that 
passers-by  may  be  informed  of  her  sorrow,  she 
breaks  the  mirrors  and  destroys  the  choicest 
pieces  of  furniture  in  the  house,  in  order  that 
desolation  may  reign  within  the  walls  of  her 
bereaved  home.  And  the  grief  which  finds  its 
expression  in  these  self-sacrificing  manifestations 
at  the  time  of  the  bereavement,  has  sufficient 
vitality  to  seek  renewed  expression,  in  various 
ways,  after  weeks  and  months,  or  even  years, 
have  passed.  These  ways  of  violent  grief-show- 


1 88  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

ing  may  not,  indeed,  commend  themselves  to  our 
judgment  or  tastes  ; but  let  us  not  be  so  lacking 
in  charity,  or  in  a knowledge  of  human  nature, 
as  to  claim  that  they  have  less  reason  to  be 
deemed  consistent  with  sincerity  of  feeling  in  the 
grief  which  underlies  them,  than  the  conven- 
tional modes  of  mourning  which  have  so  wide 
sway  in  the  lands  of  our  Western  civilization. 

Beyond  all  show  of  mourning  in  the  homes  of 
the  dead,  there  is  the  custom  of  mourning  over 
the  graves  of  the  dead,  in  the  East,  that  is  one 
of  the  more  marked  features  and  one  of  the  more 
touching  characteristics  of  Oriental  social  life. 
My  first  landing  in  Alexandria  was  on  a Wednes- 
day evening.  On  the  day  following,  as  I was 
on  the  edge  of  the  city,  I saw  a large  number  of 
veiled  women  moving  toward  a neighboring 
cemeter)',  in  the  vicinity  of  the  column  known  as 
“ Pompey’s  Pillar.”  They  were  going  to  the 
graves  of  their  dead  dear  ones,  to  weep  there,  or 
to  adorn  those  graves  with  tokens  of  their  loving 
remembrance.  As  I watched,  their  numbers 
multiplied.  Not  merely  those  recently  bereaved, 
but  those  whose  dear  ones  were  buried  long  ago, 
were  among  these  visitors  to  the  cemetei*)\  Two 


Funerals  and  Mourning  in  the  East.  1 89 


and  two,  as  a rule,  they  seated  themselves,  the 
one  at  the  head  and  the  other  at  the  foot  of  a 
grave,  and  there  bowed  their  heads  in  mourning. 

In  some  cases  a group  gathered  about  one 
grave.  Some  entered  into  the  chambers  of 
larger  tombs  ; while  some  found  a place  under 
a tent,  or  booth,  or  other  temporary  structure, 
eredled  for  the  purpose  of  shielding  the  mourners 
from  inclement  weather.  Sobs  and  moans  were 
to  be  heard  from  some  of  the  veiled  mourners, 
and  wailings  came  from  others.  A great  many 
had  leaves  of  palm,  or  bunches  of  myrtle,  in 
their  hands,  to  place  upon  the  graves  over  which 
they  wept  ; every  grave  having  an  opening  in  its 
plaster  covering  for  the  reception  of  flowers  and 
shrubs. 

It  was  an  impressive  sight,  that  city  of  the 
dead  swarming  with  loving  mourners  over  its 
silent  dwellers  ! And  I found  that  that  was  an 
occurrence  of  every  week,  and  oftener  ; as  it  had 
been  for  a long  series  of  centuries.  On  Mon 
days  and  Thursdays — the  days  which  were  the 
market  days  in  Palestine  twenty  centuries  ago 
— this  visiting  of  the  graves  of  dead  friends  is 
a prevailing  custom  in  the  lands  of  the  Bible. 


190  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

And  there  is  more  or  less  of  it  on  other  days  as 
well.  All  the  way  along  my  journeying  in  the 
East,  I saw  its  repetitions. 

In  one  instance  I saw  a gathering  of  children 
in  bright  dresses  as  visitors  at  a cemetery  in 
Palestine.  And  at  Nazareth,  in  the  early  gray 
of  the  morning  of  Easter  Sunday,  I saw  two 
veiled  women  bowed  over  a grave  not  far  from 
my  tent,  the  one  at  the  head  and  the  other  at  the 
foot,  in  a drizzling  rain,  as  if  they  had  been  there 
all  night,  or  had  come  there  “ as  it  began  to 
dawn  toward  the  first  day  of  the  week,”^  to 
manifest  their  unfailing  love  for  him  who  lay 
buried  there,  awaiting  the  resurrection. 

Surely  a custom  like  this,  based  upon  a pro- 
found sentiment  which  can  sway  an  entire 
people,  generation  after  generation,  in  the  direc- 
tion of  a show  oi  unselfish  loving  fidelity  to  dead 
dear  ones,  at  the  cost  of  time  and  comfort,  week 
after  week,  for  long  years  together,  is  worthy  of 
respect  and  honor,  rather  than  of  ridicule  and 
sneers. 

This  loving  reverence  for  the  dead,  with  a rec- 
ognition of  the  continued  relation  of  the  dead 


‘Matt.  28  : I. 


Funerals  and  Mourning  in  the  East.  191 


with  the  living,  shows  itself  in  all  the  East,  in 
the  custom  of  public  wailings  over  the  dead,  with 
invokings  and  evokings  of  the  absent  spirit. 
Such  assemblies  are  to  be  seen  in  Bible  lands 
to-day,  as  they  are  mentioned  of  old  in  the  Bible 
text. 

For  example  : Rachel,  the  loved  wife  of  Jacob, 
and  the  mother  of  Joseph  and  Benjamin,  is  the 
type  of  the  true  mother  in  the  minds  of  the 
ancient  Israelites.^  Her  tomb  near  Bethlehem^ 
was  a landmark  in  the  days  of  Samuel ; ^ and  its 
traditional  site  is  reverenced  to-day  by  Jews, 
Christians,  and  Muhammadans.  And  the  public 
wailing  of  mothers  over  their  children  in  the 
land  of  Israel  has  been  likened  ever  since  to  the 
weeping  of  this  typical  mother  in  the  hour  of 
her  mourning — when  Joseph  her  first-born  was 
counted  by  her  as  dead,  although  he  was  still 
alive  in  a far-away  land. 

There  appears,  indeed,  to  be  a gleam  of  resur- 
redlion  hope  in  this  very  acceptance  of  Rachel  as 
a type  of  the  mourning  mother  by  the  people  of 
Israel.  Jeremiah  gives  comfort  in  this  direction 
when  he  declares ; “Thus  saith  the  Lord : A 

* See  Ruth  4:11.  ^ Gen.  35  ; 19,  20.  ’ i Sam.  10  : 2. 


1 92  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

voice  is  heard  in  Ramah,  lamentation,  and  bitter 
weeping,  Rachel  weeping  for  her  children  ; she 
refuseth  to  be  comforted  for  her  children,  because 
they  are  not.  Thus  saith  the  Lord  : Refrain  thy 
voice  from  weeping,  and  thine  eyes  from  tears  : 
for  thy  work  shall  be  rewarded,  saith  the  Lord  ; 
and  they  shall  come  again  from  the  land  of  the 
enemy.  And  there  is  hope  for  thy  latter  end, 
saith  the  Lord ; and  thy  children  shall  come 
again  to  their  own  border.”  ^ And  this  hope- 
less mourning  of  their  dead  by  sorrow-stricken 
mothers  in  Ramah,  when  they  might  have  had 
hope  even  in  their  sorrow,  is  referred  to  again  in 
the  New  Testament,  in  connection  with  the  wail- 
ing of  the  mothers  of  Bethlehem — near  the  tomb 
of  Rachel — at  the  time  of  the  slaying  of  the  in- 
fants by  Herod,  in  his  purpose  of  compassing 
the  death  of  Jesus.  ^ 

Even  down  to  modern  times  there  are  illus- 
trations of  this  custom  of  the  periodic  public 
wailing  by  women  over  their  dead  in  burial- 
places  within  the  former  limits  of  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin,  where  the  descendants  of  the  younger 
children  of  Rachel  were  a people.  Le  Bruyn, 


Jer.  31  : 15-17. 


^ Alatt.  2 : 16-18. 


Funerals  and  Mourning  in  the  East.  1 93 


a French  traveler  of  a century  and  a half  ago, 
reports  such  a scene  as  he  observed  it  at  the 
traditional  site  of  Ramah.  Seeing  a large  com- 
pany of  mourning  women  go  out  from  Ramah 
toward  a neighboring  burial-place  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  their  accustomed  lamentation 
over  the  dead,  he  followed  them,  and  from  a con- 
venient elevation  watched  their  proceedings. 

First  they  prostrated  themselves  on  the  graves, 
and  wept  there  for  half  an  hour  or  more.  Then 
several  of  them  arose  and  formed  themselves 
into  a circle  by  joining  hands,  as  if  they  would 
take  part  in  a circular  dance.  Into  this  mourn- 
ing ring  two  of  their  number  entered,  and  led  in 
a wild  dirge,  clapping  their  hands  and  wailing 
vociferously.  After  a season  of  this  demonstra- 
tive mourning,  all  returned  to  the  graves  to  sit 
and  weep  there  once  more.  Finally  they  re- 
turned to  their  homes  singly  or  a few  at  a time. 
When  they  arose  to  join  in  the  public  wailing, 
LeBruyn  noticed  that  each  of  them  covered  her- 
self with  a close  black  veil,  the  use  of  which  is 
an  Oriental  mourning  custom,  having  its  survi- 
val in  the  thick  mourning  veil  which  is  so  com- 
mon among  us  here  to-day. 

13 


194  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

The  custom  of  mourning  periodically  at  the 
graves  of  eminent  personages  who  died  long, 
long  ago,  is  a prevalent  one  in  the  East  to-day, 
as  it  has  been  from  time  immemorial.  Passing 
northward  from  Mt.  Sinai  into  the  desert,  I came 
upon  the  tomb  of  Shaykh  Szaleh,  whose  memory 
is  honored  in  this  way  among  the  Bed'ween  of 
that  desert.  Who  Shaykh  Szaleh  was,  or  when 
he  lived,  is  not  clear;  but  his  “name  is  hardly 
second  to  that  of  Moses  among  the  Arabs.” 

As  we  approached  the  tomb,  our  Arabs  showed 
more  reverence  than  I saw  them  manifest  on 
any  other  occasion.  They  bowed  themselves  in 
prayer  at  the  entrance  of  the  little  whitened 
stone  structure  which  covers  the  resting-place  of 
the  shaykh,  or  prophet,  or  saint,  whose  memory 
is  held  so  sacred  by  their  people.  They  took  up 
dust  from  before  the  tomb,  and  scattered  it  upon 
their  own  heads, ^ and  again  upon  the  heads  of 
their  camels. 

The  inner  walls  of  this  tomb  are  garnished 
with  ostrich  eggs,  and  rich  scarfs,  and  camel 
trappings,  and  hanging  lamps,  as  votive  offer- 

^ 2 Sam.  19  : 9:  Job  2:12;  42  : 6 ; Lam.  2:10:  3:16;  Ezek.  27  : 
30;  Re\'.  18  : 19. 


Fimerals  and  Mourning  in  the  East.  195 


ings  from  reverent  visitors.  And  such  an  offering 
is  always  safe  in  such  a place  in  the  East  ; for  to 
remove  it  would  be  a sacrilege,  and  Orientals 
are  not  sacrilegious.  Once  a year  there  is  a 
gathering  of  Arabs  at  this  tomb,  with  commem- 
orative religious  services,  including  a sacrifice. 
And  this  is  only  one  such  place  among  many, 
or  above  many,  that  are  thus  venerated  by  the 
Arabs.  “There  are  very  few  Bedouin  tribes,” 
says  Burckhardt,  “who  have  not  one  or  more 
tombs  of  protecting  saints,  in  whose  honor  they 
offer  sacrifices.” 

Not  to  speak  of  the  tombs  of  Abraham  and 
Isaac  and  Jacob  at  Hebron,  there  are  traditional 
tombs,  or  muqams,  of  prophets  or  shaykhs,  on 
well-nigh  all  the  hill-tops  of  Palestine,  which  are 
held  in  reverence  by  the  people  of  that  land,  as 
covering  the  remains  of  those  who  though  dead 
are  still  alive,  and  who  have  power  to  help  or  to 
harm  those  who  approach  their  resting-places. 
We  are  told,  indeed,  by  Major  Conder,  that  “the 
influence  of  a powerful  sheikh  [represented  by  his 
tomb]  is  thought  to  extend  ten  or  twenty  miles 
round  his  mukham.”  At  a muqam  in  honor  of 
Samson,  on  a hill-top  south  of  Gaza,  to  which 


196  Studies  hi  Oriental  Social  Life. 

he  is  supposed  to  have  carried  away  the  gates  of 
that  cityd  an  annual  commemoration  of  that  grim 
athlete  of  Israel  is  still  observed  after  the  pattern 
of  that  at  the  miiq^m  of  Shaykh  Szaleh. 

After  the  sacrifice  by  Jephthah  of  his  only 
daughter,  in  accordance  with  his  hasty  vow  after 
his  victory,  “it  was  a custom  in  Israel  that  the 
daughters  of  Israel  went  yearly  to  celebrate  the 
daughter  of  Jephthah  . . . four  days  in  a year.”^ 
When  King  Josiah  was  killed,  on  the  plain  of 
Megiddo,  by  the  archers  of  Pharaoh  Necho,  “all 
Judah  and  Jerusalem  mourned  for  Josiah.”  And 
afterward  it  is  said  that  “ Jeremiah  lamented  for 
Josiah  : and  all  the  singing  men  and  singing 
women  spake  of  Josiah  in  their  lamentations, 
unto  this  day ; and  they  made  them  an  ordinance 
in  Israel : and,  behold,  they  are  written  in  the 
lamentations.”^ 

The  more  primitive  origin  of  this  custom,  or  of 
its  superstitious  abuses,  would  seem  to  be  indi- 
cated in  the  mention  by  Ezekiel  of  “ the  women 
weeping  for  Tammuz”  at  “the  door  of  the  gate  of 
the  Lord’s  house  which  was  toward  the  North  ; ”* 


ijudg.  16  : 3.  Nudg.  II  : 39,40. 

® 2 Chron.  35  ; 22-25  see  also  Zech.  12:11.  ‘ Ezek.  8 : 14. 


Funerals  and  Mourning  in  the  East.  197 

for  the  annual  lament  over  Tammuz  is  supposed 
to  represent  the  same  idea  as  the  annual  lament 
of  Venus  over  Adonis  of  the  Greeks,  and  of  Isis 
over  Osiris  of  the  Egyptians,  while  perhaps  it 
was  identical  with  the  mourning  of  Ishtar  over 
Dumuzi  of  the  Chaldeans. 

Hear  the  cry  of  Isis  to  her  dead  brother  and  hus- 
band, Osiris,  in  the  literature  of  ancient  Egypt : 


“ Look  at  me ; I am  thy  sister  who  loveth  thee. 
Do  not  stay  far  from  me,  O beautiful  youth ! 
Come  to  thine  abode  with  haste,  with  haste. 

I see  thee  no  more. 

My  heart  is  full  of  bitterness  on  account  of  thee. 
Mine  eyes  seek  thee  ; 

I seek  thee  to  behold  thee. 

Will  it  be  long  ere  1 see  thee  ? 

Will  it  be  long  ere  I see  thee  ? 

[O]  excellent  Sovereign, 

Will  it  be  long  ere  1 see  thee  ? 

Beholding  thee  is  happiness  ; 

Beholding  thee  is  happiness. 

[O]  god  An,  beholding  thee  is  happiness. 

Come  to  her  who  loveth  thee. 

Come  to  her  who  loveth  thee. 

[O]  Un-nefer,  the  justified. 

Come  to  thy  sister,  come  to  thy  wife. 

Come  to  thy  sister,  come  to  thy  wife. 

[O]  Urt-het,  come  to  thy  spouse. 

I am  thy  sister  by  thy  mother ; 


198  Studies  in  Oj'iental  Social  Life. 


Do  not  separate  thyself  from  me. 

Gods  and  men  [turn]  their  faces  towards  thee, 

Weeping  together  for  thee,  whenever  [they]  behold  me. 

I call  thee  in  my  lamentations 
Even  to  the  heights  of  Heaven, 

And  thou  hearest  not  my  voice. 

I am  thy  sister  who  loveth  thee  on  earth ; 

No  one  else  hath  loved  thee  more  than  I, 

[Thy]  sister,  [thy]  sister.” 

That  lament,  of  forty  centuries  ago,  is  almost 
identical  in  its  strain  and  spirit  with  the  lament 
over  a husband  or  brother  in  Upper  Egypt  to- 
day ; or  at  an  Irish  wake,  in  the  region  where 
that  Celtic  ceremony  is  still  observed  in  its  more 
primitive  form.  And  even  though  it  is  a goddess 
mourning  over  a dead  god  who  speaks  out  in 
this  primeval  lament,  it  is  to  be  borne  in  mind 
that  Osiris  was  counted  as  the  representative  of 
every  dead  Egyptian  Avho  was  adjudged  Avorthy 
of  the  rite  of  burial,  and  Avho  therefore  slept  in 
the  hope  of  a glorious  resurreclion. 

And  just  here  there  is  to  be  noticed  a marked 
peculiarity  of  the  Old  Testament  Avritings,  in 
their  contrast  Avith  other  religious  literature  of 
the  same  age  and  earlier,  concerning  the  hope 
of  a life  after  death.  It  has  even  been  ques- 
tioned by  many  exegetes  Avhether  a single  Old 


Funerals  and  Alourning  in  the  East.  199 


Testament  passage,  just  as  it  stands,  shows  un- 
mistakably the  writer’s  convitlion  that  the  dead 
shall  live  again,  and  that  the  present  life  is  a 
probation  for  the  life  that  follows  this.  The 
Old  Testament  silence  at  this  point  has,  in- 
deed, been  accepted  by  many  a student  of  the 
problem  of  human  progress,  as  indicating  that 
in  the  days  of  the  Old  Testament  writing  the 
idea  of  a future  life  was  not  yet  developed  among 
the  Hebrews. 

But  outside  history  makes  clear  to  us  that  in 
Assyria  and  Egypt,  on  either  side  of  the  Hebrew 
people,  and  also  among  their  Canaanitish  neigh- 
bors, at  the  time  of  the  Old  Testament  writing, 
and  long  before,  at  whatever  date  that  writing  be 
fixed,  the  doclrine  of  a future  life,  and  of  future 
retribution,  and  of  the  influence  of  the  life  in  the 
flesh  on  the  destiny  of  the  life  in  the  spirit,  was 
of  unquestioned  predominance.  Moreover,  we 
have  no  record  of  any  people,  in  former  times 
or  later,  so  sunken  in  barbarism  or  so  exalted  in 
civilization  as  to  be  without  some  recognition  of 
such  a belief.  Hence  it  is  not  only  a most  un- 
reasonable but  adlually  an  incredible  supposi- 
tion, that  the  writers  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures 


200 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

were  without  any  convicHon  or  speculation  in  this 
realm  of  thought. 

o 

In  the  very  earliest  days  of  which  we  have  any 
knowledge  in  Egypt,  the  life  beyond  the  present 
was  even  more  prominent  in  the  popular  mind 
than  the  life  which  was  lived  on  earth.  A tomb 
for  the  dead  was  counted  as  of  greater  impor- 
tance than  a house  for  the  living.  Preparing 
one’s  own  tomb  was  a work  worthy  of  one’s  best 
endeavors,  in  his  freshest  and  most  vigorous 
period  of  life  ; and  a welcome  gift  from  a royal 
father  to  his  daughter,  at  the  time  of  her  mar- 
riage, was  a first-class,  well-finished  tomb,  as  a 
resting-place  for  her  body.  The  careful  embalm- 
ing of  the  body  after  death  was  in  view  of  the 
value  of  a preserved  body  to  the  spirit  which  had 
left  it  for  a season.  Every  funeral  dirge  was 
based  on  the  belief  that  the  dead  one  was  still 
alive,  and  that  its  permanent  destiny  Avas  affebled 
by  its  earthly  career. 

Over  the  tombs  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  there 
were  sometimes  inscribed  calls  to  the  passer-by 
to  halt  and  offer  up  supplications  for  the  souls 
of  those  who  rested  there.  At  the  entrance  to 
the  more  imposing  tombs  there  were  chambers 


Funerals  and  Mournmg  in  the  East.  201 


in  which  the  family  and  friends  of  the  deceased 
would  gather  from  time  to  time  to  offer  prayers 
in  behalf  of  those  who  had  left  them,  and  whose 
spiritual  presence  seemed  to  be  recognized. 

Referring  to  these  requests  for  prayers  graven 
on  the  funerary  tablets  in  ancient  Egypt,  Dr. 
Amelia  B.  Edwards  emphasizes  the  fabt  that  the 
burden  of  the  intercessory  supplications  asked  for 
was  needful  supplies  for  the  deceased  in  the 
intermediate  state.  She  cites  an  inscription  at 
the  tomb  of  Pepi-Na,  of  the  sixth  dynasty,  long 
before  the  days  of  Abraham,  and  which  she  fixes 
at  thirty-five  centuries  before  our  era  : 

“ O ye  who  live  upon  the  earth  ! 

Ye  who  come  hither  and  are  servants  of  the  gods, 

Oh,  say  these  words  [of  prayer  to  Osiris]  : 

‘Grant  thousands  of  loaves,  thousands  of  jars  of  wine,  thou- 
sands of  beeves,  thousands  of  geese  to  the  Ka  [the  life  or 
vital  principle]  of  the  Royal  Friend  Pepi-Na,  Superintendent 
of  the  Royal  Household,  and  Superior  of  the  Priests  of  the 
Pyramid  of  King  Pepi.’  ” 

And  she  adds,  as  to  the  antiquity  of  the  belief 
by  the  Egyptians  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul : 
“ Look  back  as  far  as  we  will  into  the  darkness 
of  their  past,  question  as  closely  as  we  may  the 


202  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

earliest  of  their  monuments,  and  we  yet  find  them 
looking  forward  to  an  eternal  future.” 

Under  the  influence  of  such  ideas  as  these 
Moses  was  trained.  All  the  Hebrews  were 
aflecded  by  them.  Yet  no  clear  recognition  of 
these  ideas  is  given  in  the  writings  of  Moses, 
or  of  his  disciples  for  centuries  after. 

The  dirges  seem  to  have  been  much  the  same 
in  Palestine  as  in  Egypt.  The  funeral  and 
mourning  customs  of  the  Hebrews  were  not 
materially  different  from  those  of  the  Egyptians. 
The  care  of  the  dead  was  as  reverent,  and  the 
memory  of  the  dead  was  as  faithfully  honored,  in 
the  one  land  as  in  the  other.  Yet  while  the 
Egyptian  religious  literature  gave  more  emphasis 
to  the  importance  of  the  future  life  than  to  that 
of  the  present,  the  religious  literature  of  the 
Hebrews  seems  to  have  praclically  ignored  the 
fad;  of  an  existence  beyond  the  grave.  With 
the  belief  of  the  Hebrews  on  this  point  as  it  must 
have  been,  the  silence  of  the  Hebrew  sacred 
oracles  on  this  point  as  it  is,  is  certainly  most 
remarkable. 

Here  are  books  by  the  score,  written  by  differ- 
ent men,  at  various  times  in  a sweep  of  a thou- 


Funerals  and  Mourning  in  the  East.  203 


sand  years,  and  in  countries  widely  separated  ; 
books  of  history  ; books  of  prophecy ; books  of 
poetry,  of  proverb,  and  of  precept ; books  treat- 
ing of  life  and  of  death,  of  duty,  of  danger,  and 
of  hope ; the  writers  themselves  living  in  the 
thought  of  a future  life,  planning  with  reference 
to  it,  giving  expression  to  their  feeling  concern- 
ing its  great  realities  whenever  they  bore  a part 
in  a funeral  service  or  uttered  a lament  over  a 
dead  loved  one  ; with  not  one  of  the  writers  in 
any  one  of  the  books  saying  a single  well-defined 
word  in  expression  of  his  personal  belief  in  this 
realm  of  truth,  or  in  clear  recognition  of  the 
universality  of  a common  convidlion  on  the  gen- 
eral SLibjedl.  Is  not  this  a wonder  ? 

An  unmistakable  tendency  of  the  human  mind 
is,  and  always  has  been,  to  question  and  specu- 
late concerning  the  possibilities  of  the  life  be- 
yond the  grave.  The  theme  of  themes  in  the 
world’s  thought,  and  in  the  religious  writings  of 
the  world,  during  all  the  centuries  of  the  Old 
Testament’s  preparation,  was  the  state  of  man 
in  the  world  to  come.  Yet  that  theme  of  themes 
was  religiously  excluded  from  all  the  Old  Testa- 
ment pages.  How  can  this  be  accounted  for  so 


204  Studies  m Orierital  Social  Life. 

simply  and  so  reasonably  as  by  admitting  that 
these  writers  were  guided  and  controlled  by  a 
Power  outside  of  and  above  themselves,  both  in 
what  they  should  say,  and  in  what  they  should 
leave  unsaid  ? And  to  admit  this  is  to  admit 
the  truth  of  the  unique  inspiration  of  the  Old 
Testament  Scriptures  in  their  time  and  place. 

The  importance  attached,  in  ancient  Egypt 
and  in  other  lands  adjacent  to  the  land  of  the 
Hebrews,  to  the  life  beyond  the  grave,  caused 
the  present  life  to  be  overshadowed  by  that 
which  is  to  come.  And  the  thought  of  those 
who  had  gone  before,  as  still  living,  came  to  be  a 
temptation  to  think  of  them  as  superior  to  those 
in  the  flesh,  so  as  to  be  objedls  of  veneration  and 
worship.  In  this  way,  polytheism  had  grown 
up  in  lieu  of  primal  monotheism  ; and  the  sim- 
plicity of  the  worship  of  the  one  God,  in  loving 
fidelity  to  his  service  here  and  now,  was  replaced 
by  varied  forms  of  the  worship  of  deified  ances- 
tors, in  the  hope  of  having  a place  with  them 
hereafter. 

It  was  needful,  therefore,  that  the  chosen  peo- 
ple of  God  should  be  called  away  from  thinking 
of  the  many  in  heaven,  to  the  thought  of  the 


Funerals  and  Mourning  in  the  East.  205 


one  God  of  heaven  and  earth,  and  should  be 
taught  that  that  God  is  best  pleased  by  men’s 
doing  their  present  duty  in  the  present  life.  And 
thus  it  is  that  the  silence  of  the  Old  Testament 
scriptures  on  the  subjedl;  of  the  future  state  is  in 
accordance  with  the  spirit  and  purpose  of  those 
writings. 

All  the  while,  however,  as  the  study  of  the 
funeral  and  mourning  customs  in  the  East,  an- 
cient and  modern,  is  in  itself  sufficient  to  show, 
the  Hebrews  recognized  the  relation  of  the  life 
that  is  to  the  life  that  is  to  come  ; as  that  rela- 
tion has  been  recognized,  in  one  way  or  another, 
by  all  mankind  from  the  earliest  days  of  which 
history  gives  us  any  trustworthy  record  or  any 
perceivable  intimation.  And  so  the  funeral  and 
mourning  customs  of  the  East  had  their  part  in 
keeping  alive  a sense  of  this  great  truth  among 
the  people  who  were  the  representatives  and  cus- 
todians of  the  purest  religious  truth  known  to 
man,  until  the  time  had  come  for  a bringing  of 
life  and  immortality  to  light  in  the  added  revela- 
tion of  Jesus  the  Christ.^  Yet  even  now  there 
is  a danger  of  our  giving  a prominence  to  the 


* See  2 Tim.  i : 10. 


206 


Studies  m Oriental  Social  Life. 


future  state,  and  to  its  dwellers,  that  is  not  justi- 
fied by  the  teachings  of  Jesus  or  of  his  immediate 
representatives. 

And  here  I close  the  treatment  of  these  three 
phases  of  Oriental  social  life  : weddings  and  be- 
trothals, hospitality,  and  funerals  and  mourning. 
Apart  from  the  interest  that  attaches  to  the  con- 
sideration of  these  themes  as  showing  us  more 
vividly  the  people  of  Bible  lands  as  they  were 
in  the  days  of  the  Bible  writing,  there  is,  I think, 
a special  value  in  the  bearing  of  the  fa61s  thus 
brought  out  on  questions  of  peculiar  moment  in 
the  history  of  our  race. 

The  study  of  betrothals  and  weddings,  on  the 
lines  of  the  most  ancient  history  of  which  we 
have  any  authentic  record,  indicates  the  primeval 
nobleness  of  man  as  evidenced  in  his  earliest 
estimate  of  woman  and  in  his  earliest  standard 
of  family  life.  Monogamy,  not  polygamy,  nor 
polyandry,  nor  promiscuity,  was  “from  the  begin- 
ning ” ^ the  basis  of  the  family  relation. 

The  study  of  the  virtue  of  hospitality  along 
the  same  lines,  indicates  a primeval  recognition 
* Matt.  19  : 4-8. 


Fimerals  and  Moiirning  in  the  East.  207 


of  the  brotherhood  of  man  as  a consequence  of 
the  fatherhood  of  God,  and  discloses  a universal 
standard  of  character  among  primitive  peoples, 
in  an  ideal  of  duty  recognized  by  them  and 
divinely  approved  in  the  Bible  record.  He  who 
receives  and  honors  a stranger-guest  as  a child 
of  God  thereby  signifies  his  readiness  to  welcome 
the  Son  of  God  when  he  appears  as  the  mani- 
festation of  God.^ 

The  study  of  funeral  and  mourning  customs, 
in  a similar  light,  indicates  a primeval  recog- 
nition of  the  truth  of  a life  beyond  the  grave, 
and  of  the  fixing  of  its  destiny  by  the  personal 
chara6ler  disclosed  in  the  present  life.  Every 
wailing  cry  to  the  dead  in  the  form  of  question 
or  entreaty,  and  every  proffer  of  help  to  the  de- 
parted in  the  form  of  gifts  at  the  grave  for  the 
supply  of  their  needs,  is  in  witness  to  the  truth 
that  death  does  not  end  all.^ 

And  a comparison  of  these  fadls  with  the 
teachings  of  the  Old  Testament  scriptures  in- 
cidentally points  to  a divine  control  of  the  treat- 
ment of  this  theme  in  the  Old  Testament  and  in 
the  New.  The  silences  of  the  Bible  as  truly  as 
1 Matt.  10 : 40.  “ Heb.  9 : 27. 


2o8 


Studies  in  O^dental  Social  Life. 

its  utterances  are  proofs  of  the  inspiration  that 
restrained  and  guided  its  writersd 

And  these  important  disclosures  in  the  sphere 
of  Oriental  social  life  are  but  suggestions  of  the 
ver)^  many  truths  to  be  brought  into  a clearer 
light  by  a study  of  the  Bible  record  in  compari- 
son with  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  people 
of  Bible  lands.  The  text  of  the  Bible  has  a new 
meaning  when  we  understand  the  ways  of  the 
men  who  wrote  it,  and  the  peculiarities  of  the 
countries  where  they  lived, 

^ Deut.  29  : 2g ; John  16 : 12. 


THE  VOICE  OF  THE  FORERUNNER. 


My  first  sight  of  the  East  was  at  Alexandria, 
And  that  first  sight  was  so  thoroughly  Ori- 
ental, so  thoroughly  un- Occidental,  so  utterly 
unlike  anything  and  everything  I had  ever  seen 
before,  that  it  is  stamped  upon  my  mind  to-day 
with  a freshness  and  vividness  that  make  all 
other  remembered  scenes  of  the  East  little  more 
than  variations  and  modifications  of  what  then 
caught  my  eyes.  All  the  East  was  before  me  in 
a single  glimpse. 

The  glimpse  was  from  the  sea,  as  we  ap- 

14  209 


2 10 


Studies  in  Oi'icntal  Social  Life. 


proached  from  Naples.  What  a Babel  and  what 
a Pandemonium  as  the  motley  crowd,  of  all  shades 
of  complexion,  and  in  all  varieties  of  Eastern 
costume,  clambered  on  to  the  steamer’s  deck, 
and  yelled  or  jabbered  in  all  languages,  and 
crowded  and  jostled  and  pushed  and  gesticu- 
lated excitedly,  as  if  their  very  lives  were  in 
jeopardy,  and  everybody  else’s  would  have  to  be ! 
Egyptians,  Arabs,  Moors,  Nubians,  Abyssinians, 
Turks — from  dingy  yellow  through  swarthy  red 
and  olive  and  brown  to  jetty  black.  Turbans  and 
tarboushes  and  bare  heads  ; flowing  robes  and 
baggy  trousers,  and  naked  limbs  and  bodies, 
in  undistinguishable  confusion.  Boatmen,  por- 
ters, hotel  runners,  hucksters,  guides,  interpre- 
ters, dragomans,  and  officials  of  various  grades, 
— all  equally  vociferous,  violent,  persistent,  and 
seemingly  unsane. 

How  the  boatmen  battled  for  a place  at  the 
steamer’s  accommodation  ladder,  with  their  primi- 
tive and  varied  craft,  forcing  off  a rival’s  bow, 
and  crowding  in  past  it,  even  springing  forward 
to  hurl  back,  with  loud  curses,  the  competing 
boatman  himself,  as  if  it  were  in  the  final  strima-le 
of  pirates  for  a first  boarding  of  a coveted  treas- 


The  Voice  of  the  Forerun7ter . 


2 I I 


lire  ship  ! And  what  a clutching  there  was  at 
the  passengers  and  their  baggage  on  the  part 
of  boat  and  hotel  applicants  ! What  giants  of 
strength  there  were  in  some  of  those  brawny  Nu- 
bian porters,  who  swung  themselves  recklessly 
among  the  lighter  forms  of  agile  Arabs,  and  the 
skinny,  withered  frames  of  older  Egyptians ! One 
of  these  Nubians  seized  a huge  traveling  trunk 
of  our  party,  at  a signal  from  our  chosen  hotel 
agent,  and,  throwing  a stout  cord  or  small  rope 
around  it  lengthwise,  he  stooped  at  its  other  end, 
with  his  face  from  it,  and,  passing  the  loop  of  the 
cord  around  across  his  forehead,  he  rose  up, 
taking  the  trunk  end-wise  on  his  back — its  weight 
steadied  by  the  cord  across  his  forehead  ; then 
he  coolly  had  a second  trunk  lifted  on  to  his 
head  above  the  first,  and  he  stepped  off  lightly 
with  that  superincumbent  head-dress,  apparently 
no  more  burdened  than  an  American  lady  with 
her  winter’s  bonnet-pile  of  velvet  and  lace  and 
feathers. 

From  sea  to  shore  was  only  from  the  shadow 
to  the  substance,  from  the  glimpse  to  the  clear 
vision,  of  Oriental  life.  Where  but  in  the  East 
could  be  seen  what  was  before  us  and  about  us 


2 1 2 Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

at  every  step  in  the  more  crowded  streets  of  Alex- 
andria ? Where  in  all  the  East  could  anything 
else  be  looked  for  ? Leaving  the  European  quar- 
ter, in  the  vicinity  of  the  Place  Muhammad  Alee, 
shortly  after  our  arrival  at  the  hotel,  I found  my 
way  with  a friend  into  the  closely  packed  Arab 
districts,  and  was  soon  in  the  bewildering  maze 
of  Oriental  sights  and  sounds. 

How  those  narrow  streets  were  packed,  and 
with  what  grotesque  appearances!  Half-naked 
cripples  and  blind  beggars,  veiled  women,  men 
in  bright-colored  garments,  and  children  in  none, 
were  everywhere.  Shop-keepers  squatted  at  the 
window-like  openings  of  their  dog-kennel  shops 
on  either  side  of  the  way.  Children  were  making 
mud-pies  under  the  very  feet  of  the  passers. 
Tumble-down  buildings  seemed  overhanging  the 
middle  of  the  burlesque  street,  and  mosk  mina- 
rets uplifted  themselves  against  the  sky  beyond 
the  buildings  in  the  ^distance.  Donkeys  trotted 
through  the  crowd  as  a part  of  it  at  every  turn. 
Lono^-eared  o-oats  thrust  their  noses  between  the 
buyer  and  the  seller  of  sweets,  or  of  leeks  and 
onions.  Occasionally  a buffalo  cow,  drawing  a 
rude  cart,  or  again  a heavily  loaded  camel,  pushed 


The  Voice  of  the  Forerunner . 


213 


itself  into  the  throng,  rather  than  through  it. 
Water-carriers,  with  their  huge  goat-skin  bottles 
and  their  tinkling  brass  cups,  proffered  “ the  gift 
of  God”^  to  the  thirsty.  All  the  city  seemed 
gathered  at  every  door,^  with  the  same  purpose 
and  with  no  purpose.  Illuminated  bits  of  every 
picture  of  Eastern  life  which  I had  ever  seen  in 
print  or  in  paint  from  childhood  up  were  tumbling 
before  my  eyes  in  kaleidoscopic  confusion  and 
attractiveness  ; and  sounds  of  the  peculiar  wail 
of  Egyptian  music  came  floating  into  my  ears  as 
we  moved  on  in  wonderment  from  street  to 
street,  gradually  nearing  the  open  square  once 
more. 

It  was  out  of  all  this  confusion,  and  amid  all 
this  bewilderment,  that  suddenly  a sharp,  clear 
sound  was  heard  : “ O’a  ! ” (Take  care  !)  “Ya- 
meenak  ! Shemalak  ! ” (To  thy  right ! To  thy 
left !)  and  as  I turned  to  learn  its  meaning,  I saw 
a lithe-limbed  young  Egyptian  gaily  dressed, 
with  his  loins  girded,  coming  on  the  run,  swing- 
ing a light  staff  in  his  hand,  and  repeating  his 
cries  to  the  throng  in  the  street  to  make  way  for 
those  who  were  to  follow.  Close  behind  him 


‘John  4 ; 10. 


“ Mark  i : 33. 


2 1 4 Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

came  an  open  carriage,  drawn  by  a span  of  showy 
horses,  containing  an  officer  of  the  government 
and  a gentleman  friend. 

That  was  my  first  sight  of  a runner  before  a 
rider, — of  the  typical  forerunner  of  the  Oriental 
sovereign’s  chariot,  according  to  the  Old  Testa- 
ment story.  WTen  Ahab,  king  of  Israel,  drove 
furiously  before  the  coming  storm  across  the  broad 
plain  of  Esdraelon,  from  the  base  of  Carmel  to 
his  ivory  palace  at  Jezreel,  after  the  slaughter  of 
the  priests  of  Baal,  the  weird  old  prophet  of  the 
wilderness  was  his  forerunner,  after  this  unchan- 
gingOriental  fashion.  “And  the  hand  of  the  Lord 
was  on  Elijah  ; and  he  girded  up  his  loins,  and 
ran  before  Ahab  to  the  entrance  of  Jezreel.”  ^ 

When  the  Israelites  clamored  for  a king  to  rule 
over  them,  Samuel  warned  them,  saying:  “This 
will  be  the  manner  of  the  king  that  shall  reign 
over  you  : he  will  take  your  sons,  and  appoint 
them  unto  him  for  his  chariots,  and  to  be  his 
horsemen  ; and  they  shall  run  before  his  chari- 
ots.”^ And  when  the  Israelites  were  granted  a 
king,  they  found  what  it  was  to  have  their  sons  as 
runners  before  the  royal  chariot.  In  Absalom’s 


I Kings  i8  : 45,  46. 


^ I Sam.  8 : u. 


The  I hice  of  the  Forerunner . 


215 


attempt  to  outdo  the  display  of  Saul  and  David 
in  this  line,  “Absalom  prepared  him  a chariot 
and  horses,  and  fifty  men  to  run  before  him.”  ^ 
That  was  a chance  for  the  young  runners  ! 

The  first  illustration  to  me  of  this  Bible  figure 
was  by  no  means  the  last  in  my  journeying. 
During  my  stay  in  Cairo,  one  of  the  commonest 
sights  was  a carriage  of  a pasha,  or  a carriage 
containing  ladies  of  the  khedive’s  hareem,  pre- 
ceded through  the  crowded  streets  by  one  “sais” 
(the  forerunning  groom),  or  by  two  or  more,  calling 
aloud  for  the  clearing  of  the  way.  And  when  our 
little  party  rode  out  along  the  banks  of  the  Nile, 
and  on  to  Gheezeh,  to  visit  the  pyramids  and  the 
sphinx,  a handsome  young  “sais,”  bedecked  with 
scarlet  and  blue  and  green  and  gold,  ran  before 
us  at  top  speed,  calling  out  for  a clear  path  for 
us,  among  the  loaded  camels  and  the  ambling 
donkeys  and  the  toiling  foot-passers,  from  the 
city’s  heart  into  the  desert  wastes.  For  in  these 
days  of  Egypt’s  decline  it  is  as  easy  to  hire  a once 
royal  equipage,  and  to  secure  the  once  royal 
honors,  by  the  hour,  as  it  is  to  hire  a turnout 
with  liveried  coachman  and  footman  in  New  York 


* 2 Sam.  15:1. 


2 1 6 Studies  in  Orie^ital  Social  Life. 

or  Philadelphia,  when  you  want  to  have  the  credit 
of  a carriage  of  your  own  without  its  trouble  and 
expense. 

That  cr}'  in  the  streets  of  Alexandria  was  also 
the  first  illustration  to  me  of  the  voice  of  one  cry- 
ing out  of  a wilderness  throng,  “ Prepare  ye  the 
way  of  the  coming  one.”  ^ 

In  the  Bible  figure  of  the  crier  before  the 
coming  One,  there  is  a call  of  the  forerunner  to 
prepare  the  way,  as  well  as  to  yield  it,  for  him 
who  approaches  ; 

" The  voice  of  one  that  crieth  : 

Prepare  ye  in  the  wilderness  the  way  of  the  Lord, 

Make  straight  in  the  desert  a high  way  for  our  God. 

Ever)-  valley  shall  be  exalted, 

And  every  mountain  and  hill  shall  be  made  low : 

And  the  crooked  shall  be  made  straight. 

And  the  rough  places  plain.”  ^ 

A brief  experience  on  the  tvilderness  and  desert 
roads  of  Egypt  and  Arabia,  and  on  any  of  the 
roads  of  Palestine,  would  be  sufficient  to  shotv 
the  need  of  special  preparation  if  those  roads 
were  to  be  passable,  and  the  value  of  such  prepa- 
ration when  it  has  been  secured.  At  the  best, 
* See  Isa.  40  : 3 ; Mark  i : 2,  3 ; John  i : 23.  ‘‘  Isa.  40  : 3,  4. 


The  Voice  of  the  Forerunner.  2 1 7 

a road  in  those  regions  is  little  more  than  a 
hardly  recognized  track  over  the  sands  or  the 
loose  stones,  or  along  or  across  the  cliffs  anci 
rocky  hillsides.  The  shifting  sands,  or  the  wash 
of  the  rushing  watercourses  of  the  rainy  months, 
will  destroy  at  one  season  what  was  a tolerable 
path  at  another. 

The  work  of  preparing,  or  of  repairing,  these 
roads  in  advance  of  the  coming  of  a royal  per- 
sonage, is  continued  to  the  present  time.  At 
Hebron,  as  our  party  entered  the  Holy  Land 
from  the  desert  below,  we  were  told  that  the 
Crown  Prince  of  Austria  was  just  before  us,  and 
that  the  word  had  gone  out  from  the  Turkish  au- 
thorities to  prepare  his  way  in  advance.  At  this 
our  dragoman  was  delighted,  as  he  was  sure  we 
should  find  the  roads  in  excellent  condition  all 
the  way  northward.  Again  and  again  he  said, 
gratefully  : “This  road  has  been  prepared  for  the 
prince.  I wish  there  was  always  a prince  before 
us.”  He  evidently  thought  that  the  road  was 
better  than  usual ; but  we  did  not  see  how  it  ever 
could  have  been  worse.  At  one  point  and  another 
we  were  told  that  the  road  we  then  traveled  was 
prepared,  or  was  improved,  for  the  Prince  of 


2i8 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


Wales,  or  for  the  Grand  Duke  Alexander  ; and 
in  all  these  cases  it  was  evident  that  the  voice 
of  a forerunner  had  been  heard  in  advance  of 
the  son  of  royalty  : “ Prepare  ye  the  way  of  the 
coming  one.”^ 

^ See  Isa.  40  : 3 ; Mark  i : 2,  3;  John  i ; 23. 


PRIMITIVE  IDEA  OF  “THE  WAY.” 


The  ancient  Oriental  idea  of  a road,  an  idea 
which  still  has  large  prominence  in  the  East  and 
elsewhere,  is  of  the  highway  of  a king.  Roads 
were  originally  built  by  the  king,  and  for  the 
king  ; and  they  were  kept  in  repair,  or  put  in  re- 
pair, according  to  the  king’s  need  of  them.  Roads 
had  their  incidental  advantages  for  the  king’s 
subjects,  but  only  by  the  king’s  grace.  This 
Oriental  idea  of  a highway  affeHs  all  Oriental 
uses  of  the  term  road,  or  way,  or  highway.  The 

Hebrew  word  derekh,  and  the  Greek  word  hodos, 

219 


2 20  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

translated  “way”  in  our  English  Bible,  mean 
“road,”  or  “trodden  path,”  or  “highway;”  and 
this  term  is  employed  both  literally  and  figu- 
ratively in  various  connections,  yet  always  with 
the  root  idea  of  the  road  of  a king  in  the  realm 
of  his  kino-dom. 

O 

One  of  the  earliest  historic  mentions  of  royal 
road-building  is  in  the  Eg^^ptian  records  of  the 
Nineteenth  Dynasty,  where  Sety  I.,  the  father 
of  Rameses  II.  (supposed  to  be  the  Pharaoh  who 
oppressed  the  Hebrews),  built  a road  over  the 
desert  into  the  gold-mines  of  Upper  Egypt  and 
Nubia,  making  it  available  by  sinking  wells,  or 
cisterns,  along  the  route.  The  road  which  both 
Sety  I.  and  Rameses  II.  took  on  their  warlike 
journeys  into  Syria,  was  known  as  the  Royal 
Road,  or  the  Pharonic  Road ; and  the  same  road 
was  later  known  as  “Sikkeh  es-Sooltanieh,”  or 
the  Sultan’s  Road. 

Professor  Sayce,  writing  of  the  times  of  the 
ancient  Assyrian  Empire,  says:  “Western  Asia 
was  more  thickly  populated  then  than  is  at  pres- 
ent the  case,  and  the  roads  were  not  only  more 
numerous  than  they  are  to-day,  but  better  kept. 
Hence  the  ease  and  rapidity  with  which  large 


Primitive  Idea  of  “ The  Way." 


221 


bodies  of  men  were  moved  by  the  Assyrian  kings 
from  one  part  of  Asia  to  another.  Where  a road 
did  not  already  exist,  it  was  made  by  the  advan- 
cing army,  timber  being  cleared  and  a highway 
thrown  up  for  the  purpose.  As  road-makers  the 
Assyrians  seem  to  have  anticipated  the  Romans,” 
and  all  their  roads  were  ways,  or  paths,  of  im- 
perial progress. 

Among  the  reported  wonders  wrought  by  the 
semi-mythical  Semiramis,  in  the  earlier  days  of 
the  Babylonian  empire,  is  the  building  of  a royal 
road  through  Media.  Diodorus  says  that  on 
her  march  over  a rough  and  precipitous  moun- 
tain country  in  that  diredlion,  “ she  became  am- 
bitious ...  at  once  to  make  a deathless  memorial 
of  herself,  and  at  the  same  time  to  make  for  her- 
self a road  \Jiodos,  a way]  which  would  be  a 
shorter  cut.  Therefore,  she  digged  down  the 
crags  and  filled  up  the  hollow  places,  and  so  pre- 
pared a road  which  was  more  expeditious,  and 
which  was  of  great  cost.  And  until  now  it  is 
called  from  her  [the  Road  of]  Semiramis.  . . . 
After  these  things  she  went  through  Persia,  and 
every  other  land  which  she  ruled  throughout 
Asia.  And  everywhere  digging  through  the 


2 2 2 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


mountains  and  the  steep  rocks,  she  prepared 
roads  at  great  expense.”  Thus  in  the  earliest 
empire  of  history,^  the  symbol  of  royal  greatness 
was  royal  road  building. 

In  ancient  Persia,  again,  as  Herodotus  informs 
us,  Darius  established  a royal  road,  from  Susa 
to  Sardis,  in  order  to  secure  rapidity  of  communi- 
cation in  the  transmission  of  his  orders  to  the 
provincial  governors.  This  road  was  more  than 
fifteen  hundred  miles  long,  or  a journey,  by 
horses,  of  ninety  days.  Along  its  route  were 
post-houses  and  relays  of  horses  for  the  accom- 
modation of  his  couriers  or  caravanseries.  “Inns 
were  to  be  found  at  ever)'  station  ; bridges  or 
ferries  were  established  upon  all  the  streams  ; 
guard-houses  occurred  here  and  there,  and  the 
whole  route  was  kept  secure  from  the  brigands 
who  infested  the  empire.”  This  highway  of  the 
king  was  of  no  small  value  to  the  ordinary  trav- 
eler, with  its  privileges  and  its  protection  ; al- 
though its  proprietorship  and  its  primal  purpose 
were  exclusiv'ely  the  king’s.  One  of  the  great 
projects  of  Alexander  the  Great,  in  contempla- 
tion at  the  time  of  his  death,  “ was  the  construc- 


‘ See  Gen.  lo  : 8-io. 


Primitive  Idea  of  The  JVay.”  223 

tion  of  a road  all  along  the  northern  coast  of 
Africa,  as  far  as  the  pillars  of  Herakles.” 

The  chief  road  through  ancient  Edom,  as  also 
through  the  land  of  the  Amorites,  in  the  days  of 
Moses,  was  known  as  the  king’s  way,  and  per- 
mission for  strangers  to  pass  over  it  must  be 
sought  of  the  kingd  The  Israelites  were 
directed  to  build  roads,  or  highways,  through  the 
Land  of  Promise,  when  they  should  have  it  in 
possession, — roads  which  should  be  counted  as 
the  Lord’s  highways  to  the  appointed  cities  of 
refuge.'^  Josephus  tells  us  that  Solomon  made 
a finished  and  substantial  stone  causeway  along 
the  roads  which  led  to  his  royal  city,  not  only  to 
render  those  roads  easy  of  travel,  but  “to  mani- 
fest the  grandeur  of  his  riches  and  government.” 
Even  all  the  great  roads  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire, which  held  the  civilized  world  in  a network, 
were  designed  and  built  as  royal  roads,  as  roads 
of  empire  ; built  first  as  military  roads,  and  kept 
in  repair  primarily  as  a means  of  governing.  “It 
was  not  until  the  Romans  had  engaged  in  com- 
paratively distant  wars,  with  the  Samnites  and 
Italiote  Greeks,”  says  a well-known  writer  on 
*Num.  20  : 14-20  ; 2i  ; 21-23.  ^ Deut.  19  : 1-3. 


2 24  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

Roman  antiquities,  “ that  the  necessity  of  keep- 
ing up  regular  and  secure  communication  with 
the  armies  became  imperative  ; and  accordingly 
about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  [B.  C.] 
they  appear  to  have  commenced  upon  a large 
scale  the  construction  of  those  great  military 
roads  {vice  militares)  which  have  proved  some  of 
the  most  enduring  monuments  of  their  greatness.” 
Rome  was  indeed  distinguished  as  the  road- 
maker  of  the  world  ; and  it  was  because  the 
world’s  roads  everywhere  were  controlled  by 
Rome  in  the  day  of  its  greatest  power,  that  the 
Romans  could  say  proudly,  wherever  they  found 
themselves,  “All  roads  lead  to  Rome.”  The 
famous  Via  Appia,  built  in  the  fourth  century 
before  our  era,  and  known  as  the  Queen  of 
Roads  {Regina  Via7'um),  stands  to  the  present 
day,  even  after  a thousand  years  of  neglebt,  as  a 
monument  of  the  labor  and  e.xpense  and  skill 
lavished  on  the  royal  way  to  and  from  the  capi- 
tal of  the  world,  in  aid  of  the  world’s  govern- 
ment and  supply.  And  all  this  work  was  but  a 
Roman  adaptation  of  the  Oriental  idea  of  roads 
and  road-making,  in  an  empire  which  was  both 
Eastern  and  Western  in  its  scope. 


Primitive  Idea  of  “ The  IVay.” 


225 


From  the  Talmud  we  learn  that  each  year  a 
new  order  was  issued,  on  the  first  of  the  month 
Adar,  for  the  inspedlion  and  repairing  of  the 
roads  leading  to  Jerusalem,  as  well  as  those  lead- 
ing to  the  cities  of  refuge.  The  branches  of 
all  trees  which  bordered  a road  must  be  cut  off 
at  a height  sufficient  to  permit  a camel  with  his 
rider  to  pass  under  it,  without  danger  of  such  a 
calamity  as  Absalom’s.^  And  the  balconies  and 
other  projedlions  of  houses  along  the  line  must 
conform  to  the  same  rule,  with  the  farther  limita- 
tion that  they  should  not  darken  the  street  by 
their  shadows.  And  these  were  the  royal  require- 
ments for  the  preservation  and  annual  repairing 
of  the  royal  roads  of  the  land  of  Jehovah. 

In  many  parts  of  the  East  the  ancient  roads 
were  prepared  or  repaired  only  at  the  special  call 
of  the  king,  for  his  special  service  on  an  excep- 
tional occasion.  “ Even  as  it  is  written  in  Isaiah 
the  prophet  d 

‘ Behold,  I send  my  messenger  before  thy  face. 

Who  shall  prepare  thy  way  [thy  road]  ; 

The  voice  of  one  crying  in  the  wilderness. 

Make  ye  ready  the  way  [the  road]  of  the  Lord, 

Make  his  paths  straight.’  ” ^ 

*2  Sam.  18  ; 6-9.  Isa.  40  : 3.  ^Mark  1:2,3;  seeJohni:23. 

15 


226 


Stiidies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


Bruce,  the  famous  African  traveler,  tells  of  a 
custom  of  the  king  of  Abyssinia,  in  making  ready 
for  one  of  his  militar}^'  campaigns,  which  illus- 
trates this  Oriental  call  for  the  preparation  of 
the  road  for  the  coming^  of  the  kinor.  The  first 
proclamation  goes  out  through  the  king’s  do- 
minions, announcing  his  proposed  movement,  in 
this  form  : “ Buy  your  mules,  get  ready  your  pro- 
vision, and  pay  your  servants  ; for  after  such  a 
day,  they  that  seek  me  here  shall  not  find  me.” 
Then,  a little  later  there  follows  another  procla- 
mation : “ Cut  down  the  kantuffa  in  the  four 
quarters  of  the  world  ; for  I do  not  know  where 
I am  going.”  This  “ kantuffa  ” is  a troublesome 
thorn-tree,  which  impedes  the  progress  of  a 
march  by  catching  at  the  clothing  of  the  rider, 
or  by  scratching  and  stinging  his  flesh. 

Bruce  adds,  that  on  one  occasion  when  the 
king’s  outer  robe  was  pulled  off  by  a branch  of 
the  kantuffa,  as  he  was  on  a march,  the  king  sent 
immediately  for  the  “shum,”  or  local  ruler,  of  the 
districl;,  and  had  both  him  and  his  son  executed 
by  hanging  from  that  kantuffa  tree  which  they 
had  neglected  to  cut  down  according  to  the 
requirements  of  the  king’s  proclamation.  Any 


Primitive  Idea  of  “ The  IVay." 


227 


one  who  has  been  compelled  to  push  his  way 
on  horseback  through  the  sharp  thistle-bushes, 
or  the  masses  of  the  prickly  pear,  along  some  of 
the  lowland  roads  of  Palestine,  will  appreciate 
the  feelings  of  the  king  of  Abyssinia,  even  if  he 
does  not  altogether  approve  the  vigorous  retali- 
atory measures  of  that  king. 

Dr.  William  M.  Thomson  says,  in  illustration 
of  the  royal  call  for  the  preparing  of  the  way 
in  the  East  in  modern  times  : “ When  Ibrahim 
Pasha  proposed  to  visit  certain  places  on  Leba- 
non, the  emeers  and  sheikhs  sent  forth  a general 
proclamation,  somewhat  in  the  style  of  Isaiah’s 
exhortation  to  all  the  inhabitants,  to  assemble 
along  the  proposed  route  and  prepare  the  way 
before  him.  The  same  was  done  in  1845,  ^ 

grand  scale,  Avhen  the  present  sultan  visited 
Brusa.  The  stones  were  gathered  out,  crooked 
places  straightened,  and  rough  ones  made  level 
and  smooth.” 

In  connection  with  these  calls  for  public  ser- 
vice, the  criers  who  announce  the  command  of 
the  ruler  to  the  people  precede  their  statement 
of  the  duty  imposed,  by  the  threefold  repetition 
of  a call  equivalent  to  the  injunction,  ‘‘  He  that 


2 28  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

hath  ears  to  hear,  let  him  hear.”^  On  hearintr 

o 

this  call,  ever)'  person  has  a duty  of  turning 
away  from  every  other  occupation,  and  of  listen- 
ing as  for  his  life.  The  royal  summons  to  him 
to  hear  carries  with  it  an  admonition  of  his  re- 
sponsibility for  hearing,  and  a warning  of  the 
peril  of  negleCling  to  hear.  He  has  no  excuse 
for  ignorance  after  that  call  on  him  to  open  his 
ears  to  the  message  from  his  ruler. 

From  the  Oriental  idea  of  a road  or  highway 
as  the  peculiar  possession  of  a king,  to  be  always 
at  his  disposal  and  for  his  service,  and  to  be 
made  ready  and  kept  in  order  at  his  call,  there 
seems  to  have  come  the  common  term  “king’s 
road,”  as  applicable  to  a public  highway,  in  more 
or  less  of  the  European  countries.  And  the 
same  idea  gives  color  to  all  the  uses  of  the  term 
“road”  or  “way”  when  applied  to  a course  of 
condudl  or  to  a system  of  religious  truth. 

To  the  Oriental  mind,  a road,  a way,  the  king’s 
highway,  includes  primarily  the  idea  of  a king- 
dom ; of  a kingdom  planned  and  a kingdom  con- 
trolled. Again,  it  includes  the  idea  of  a personal 

‘ Matt.  11:15;  13  : 9,  43  ; Mark  4 : 9,  23  ; 7 : 16  ; Luke  3 ; 8 ; 
14  ; 35.  See,  also,  Isa.  6:9;  Ezek.  12  : 12. 


Primitive  Idea  of  “ Tiie  Way." 


229 


sovereign  ; of  a sovereign  whose  plan  is  back  of 
that  highway,  and  whose  purpose  is  before  it. 
Yet  airain  it  includes  the  idea  of  the  kinof’s  com- 
mandment,  in  the  building  of  that  road  and  in 
the  keeping  of  it  in  repair ; of  a sure  course 
to  one’s  destination  by  means  of  that  road  ; of 
safety  while  on  that  road  ; of  duties  which  grow 
out  of  being  on  the  line  of  that  road  ; of  the 
duty  of  watching  for  the  king’s  coming,  and  of 
making  the  road  ready  for  his  passage  ; of  the 
duty  of  following  in  the  train  and  in  the  service 
of  the  king,  when  he  is  moving  along  that  road. 
And  this  covers  everything  that  we  understand 
by  the  way  of  duty,  the  way  of  privilege,  the 
way  of  safety,  in  our  moral  and  spiritual  life- 
course  ; the  way,  or  the  road,  which  God  has 
planned  and  provided  for  the  control  of,  and  as 
a means  of  intercommunication  throughout,  his 
kingdon^  for  the  progress  of  his  providential 
movements,  and  along  which  he  would  have  his 
servants  to  advance,  or  to  stand,  at  his  call. 

The  term  “Taouism,”  as  applied  to  one  of  the 
religions  of  China,  is  from  the  Chinese  tao,  the 
“way”  or  the  “path;”  and  it  indicates  as  thus 
used  the  search  for,  or  the  study  of,  the  path  of 


230 


Studies  in  Oi'iental  Social  Life. 


holiness.  “ Shintooism,”  the  designation  of  the 
ancient  religion  of  Japan,  is  from  the  Chinese 
shin,  “god,”  or  “spirit.”  and  tao,  “the  way,”  the 
path  of  the  gods.  Booddhism  makes  much  of 
the  path  or  way,  even  though  it  ignores  the 
Sovereign  whose  “way”  Is  to  be  traveled.  Bood- 
dha’s  “ Dhammapada,”  or  guide  in  the  progress 
toward  Nirvana,  is  the  “Path  of  \hrtue,”  or  the 
“Way  of  Holiness.”  The  Orthodox  Muham- 
madans call  themselves  “Sunnis,”  or  “People  of 
the  Path.”  “Sunnah”  is  a path,  or  road,  or 
way ; and  it  is  applied  to  the  example  and  teach- 
ing's of  Muhammad.  The  stricl;er  followers  of  the 
prophet  say  that  the  “way  ” of  IMuhammad  is 
indicated  in  what  he  said,  in  Avhat  he  did,  and  in 
what  he  sanctioned  by  his  silence  when  it  was 
said  or  done  in  his  presence.  And  so  in  Oriental 
thought  generally  the  “way”  is  the  path  or  road 
that  has  been  prepared  for  travel  by  those  who 
would  go  aright. 

This  idea  of  a road  as  the  highway  of  God’s 
kingdom,  shows  itself  all  along  in  the  Bible 
record.  Hardly  had  the  Israelites  moved  out 
from  Egy^pt  to  enjoy  the  privileges  of  Jehovah’s 
kingdom,  before  they  gave  themselves  up  to  the 


Pj'imitive  Idea  of  “ The  Jlhiy."  231 

worship  of  a golden  calf,  and  the  Lord’s  word 
came  to  Moses  on  Mount  Sinai : “Go,  get  thee 
down  ; for  thy  people,  which  thou  broughtest  up 
out  of  the  land  of  Egypt,  have  corrupted  them- 
selves: they  have  turned  aside  quickly  out  of 
the  way  which  I commanded  them  [out  of  the 
highway  along  which  I started  them].”^  And, 
again  and  again,  fidelity  to  God’s  service  is 
spoken  of  as  continuing  in  “the  way  which  the 
Lord  thy  God  commanded  thee  to  walk  in.”  ^ 
And  because  there  are  roads,  or  seeming  roads, 
or  pathways,  which  are  not  the  king’s  highway, 
frequent  mention  is  made  in  the  Bible  of  ways  of 
evil,  as  well  as  ways  of  good, — roads  within  the 
kingdom  which  are  not  roads  of  the  kingdom  ; 
just  as  there  are  said  to  be,  in  a sense,  “gods 
many,  and  lords  many,”  while  “there  is  no  God 
but  one,”^ — false  gods  which  are  no  gods,  roads 
which  are  no  roads.  “There  is  a way  which 
seemeth  right  unto  a man,  but  the  end  thereof 
are  the  ways  of  death.”*  “Enter  not  into  the 
path  of  the  wicked,  and  walk  not  in  the  way  of 

* Exod.  32  : 7,  8. 

“ See  Deut.  13:5;  31  : 29 ; Judg.  2 : 22  ; 2 Kings  21  : 22  ; Jer.  5 : 
4.  5- 

^ I Cor.  8 : 4,  5.  * Prov.  14  : 12;  16  : 25. 


232  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

evil  men.  . . . The  \vay  of  the  wicked  is  as  dark- 
ness : they  know  not  at  what  they  stumble.”  ^ 
“The  wav  of  the  treacherous  is  rimo-ed.”  ^ “ The 

O o 

way  of  the  sluggard  is  as  an  hedge  of  thorns  : but 
the  path  of  the  upright  is  made  an  highway.”® 
“Envy  thou  not  the  man  of  violence,  and  choose 
none  of  his  ways.”^  “Thus  saith  the  Lord: 
Behold,  I set  before  you  the  way  of  life  and  the 
way  of  death.”®  “Wide  is  the  gate,  and  broad 
is  the  way,  that  leadeth  to  destruction.  . . . 
Narrow  is  the  gate,  and  straitened  the  way,  that 
leadeth  unto  life.”®  And  this  view  of  the  possi- 
bility of  being  out  of  the  way  while  in  a way 
gives  added  force  to  the  cr)’  of  the  Psalmist : 
“Teach  me  thy  way,  O Lord  ; and  lead  me  in  a 
plain  path.”'  “Teach  me  thy  way,  O Lord; 
[and]  I will  walk  in  thy  truth.”®  It  also  gives 
added  preciousness  to  the  Lord’s  assurance  to 
those  who  trust  in  him:  “And  thine  ears  shall 
hear  a word  behind  thee,  saying.  This  is  the  way, 
walk  ye  in  it;  Avhen  ye  turn  to  the  right  hand, 
and  when  ye  turn  to  the  left.”  ® 

What  liofht  all  this  throws  on  the  Old  Testa- 

o 

^ Prov.  4 : 14,  19.  “ Prov.  13:15.  ^ Prov.  15  : 19. 

* Prov.  3:31.  ® Jer.  21:8.  ® Matt.  7:13,  14. 

‘ Psa.  27  : 1 1.  * Psa.  86  : 1 1.  ® Isa.  30  : 21. 


Primitive  Idea  of  “ The  Way.” 


2 


'y 

DO 


ment  prophecies  concerning  the  Messiah  and  the 
Messianic  kingdom  ! And  how  it  clears  up  the 
New  Testament  references  to  Christ  as  the  Way, 
and  again  to  Christianity  as  the  Way  of  Christ ! 
MTen  the  old  kingdoms  of  Judah  and  of  Israel 
were  failing,  or  had  already  passed  away,  the 
Lord’s  promise  was  that  a new  kingdom  should 
be  established,  and  a new  King  should  come  to 
reign  gloriously  in  that  kingdom.  The  sign  of 
that  kingdom  was  similar  to  the  sign  of  the  an- 
cient kingdoms  of  Egypt  and  of  Babylon  and  of 
Persia  ; a highway  should  be  builded  in  advance 
of  the  King’s  coming,  and  that  highway  should 
be  extended  and  established  for  the  benefit  of  all 
the  subjecls  of  the  King.  The  old  prophets  cried 
cheerily,  in  the  days  of  darkness  and  despon- 
dency : 

“ Comfort  ye,  comfort  ye  my  people, 

Saith  your  God. 

Speak  ye  comfortably  to  Jerusalem,  and  cry  unto  her, 

That  her  warfare  is  accomplished.  . . . 

The  voice  of  one  that  crieth, 

Prepare  ye  in  the  wilderness  the  way  of  the  Lord, 

Make  straight  in  the  desert  a high  way  for  our  God. 

Every  valley  shall  be  exalted. 

And  every  mountain  and  hill  shall  be  made  low ; 

And  the  crooked  shall  be  made  straight,  and  the  rough 
places  plain : 


234 


Studies  ill  Oriental  Social  Life. 


And  the  glory  of  the  Lord  shall  be  revealed, 

And  all  flesh  shall  see  it  together : 

For  the  mouth  of  the  Lord  hath  spoken  it.”  ' 

” And  I will  make  all  my  mountains  a way, 

And  my  high  ways  shall  be  exalted.”  ^ 

“ For  in  the  wilderness  shall  waters  break  out. 

And  streams  in  the  desert.  . . . 

And  an  high  way  shall  be  there,  and  a way. 

And  it  shall  be  called  the  way  of  holiness  ; 

The  unclean  shall  not  pass  over  it ; but  it  shall  be  for  those  : 
The  wayfaring  men,  yea  fools,  shall  not  err  therein. 

No  lion  shall  be  there.  . . . 

But  the  redeemed  shall  walk  there.”  ^ 

“ Behold,  I send  my  messenger,  and  he  shall  pre- 
pare theWay  before  me.”^  And  so  on  in  repeated 
and  remembered  prophecy,  until  John  the  Bap- 
tist came  “preaching  in  the  wilderness  of  Judea, 
saying.  Repent  ye  ; for  the  kingdom  of  heaven 
is  at  hand  ; ” and  his  voice  was  recognized  as 

“ The  voice  of  one  crying  in  the  wilderness. 

Make  ye  ready  the  way  of  the  Lord, 

Make  his  paths  straight.”  * 

When  Jesus  came,  he  said  explicitly  of  himself: 
“ I am  the  Way.  ...  No  one  cometh  unto  the 
Father  but  by  me.”  ® And  after  this  the  Mes- 


' Isa.  40  : 1-5. 
* Mai.  3 : I. 


^ Isa.  49  : II. 

® Matt.  3 : 1-3. 


Isa.  35  : 6,  8,  9. 
John  14  : 6. 


Primitive  Idea  of  The  IVay." 


235 


siah’s  kingdom,  the  Messiah’s  cause,  the  Messiah’s 
service,  and  the  Messiah  himself,  were  frequently 
spoken  of  by  his  followers  and  by  his  enemies  as 
the  Way.  Even  the  chief  priests  and  the  scribes 
said  craftily  to  Jesus:  “Thou  . . . teachest  the 
Way  of  God.”  ^ Paul  said  of  his  earlier  zeal 
against  Christianity : “ I persecuted  this  Way 
unto  the  death.”  ^ And  at  Ephesus  Paul  found 
some  who  “were  hardened  and  disobedient, 
speaking  evil  of  the  Way  before  the  multitude.”^ 
Again  the  appeal  came  to  the  Hebrews  of  old,  as 
it  comes  to  all  of  us  to-day  : “ Having  therefore, 
brethren,  boldness  to  enter  into  the  holy  place 
by  the  blood  of  Jesus,  by  the  Way  which  he 
dedicated  for  us,  a new  and  living  Way,  . . . 
let  us  draw  near  with  a true  heart  in  fulness  of 
faith.” 

The  fulness  and  the  force  of  the  Oriental  figure 
of  the  Way,  and  of  its  preparing,  once  recognized 
by  the  reader  of  our  English  Bible,®  its  various 
and  varying  applications  throughout  the  Old 
Testament  and  the  New  are  simple  and  evident, 
* Mark  12  : 14;  Luke  20  : 21. 

’ .•Vets  22  : 4.  ® Acts  19  : 9-23.  * Heb.  10  : 19-22. 

® This  word  “ Way  ’’  occurs  more  than  six  hundred  times  in  the 
Old  Testament,  and  nearly  one  hundred  times  in  the  New. 


236  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

and  always  to  the  advantage  of  the  truth.  The 
Book  written  by  Orientals,  primarily  for  Orien- 
tals, must  be  read  in  the  light  of  Oriental  modes 
of  thought  and  speech  in  order  to  be  best  under- 
stood and  appreciated. 


THE  ORIENTAL  IDEA  OF  “FATHER.” 


The  term  “ father  ” has  a much  wider  scope  in 
the  East  than  as  ordinarily  employed  in  the  lan- 
guages of  the  West.  In  the  East  the  term 
“father”  applies  not  merely  to  the  parent  of  his 
children,  but  to  the  head  of  a household,  to  the 
senior  of  any  allied  party  or  group,  to  the  chief 
of  a tribe,  to  the  sovereign  of  a nation,  to  the 
ancestral  founder  of  a people,  and  so  on  all  the 
way  up  to  the  eternal  Father — God.  This  it 

is  which  gives  to  the  Fifth  Commandment  its 
place  in  the  first  table  of  the  Law,  instead  of 

237 


238  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

the  second ; as  looking  upward,  and  not  out- 
ward ; as  including  those  over,  rather  than  those 
alongside  of,  the  persons  enjoined. 

I had  an  illustration  of  this  truth  at  the  very 
beginning  of  my  desert  life  in  the  East.  My  two 
traveling  companions  were  young  men,  neither  of 
them  being  a relative  of  mine.  This  fadl  was  well 
understood  by  our  Egyptian  dragoman  ; but  when 
we  first  met  old  Shaykh  Moosa,  who  was  to  convoy 
us  from  Cairo  to  Sinai,  the  three  were  presented 
to  him  as — “ Mr.  Trumbull  and  his  two  sons.”  At 
this  I touched  the  dragoman,  and  said  quietly, 

“ Not  my  sons,  but  young  friends  of  mine.” 
“That’s  all  right,”  said  the  dragoman.  “ //<? 
wouldn’t  understand  anything  else.” 

Then  I found  that  each  traveling  party  was 
known  as  a “ family,”  of  which  the  senior  member 
was  the  “father.”  So  it  was  simply  a choice  in 
our  case  whether  I should  be  called  the  young 
men’s  father,  or  one  of  them  should  be  called 
mine  : one  of  us  must  stand  for  the  father  of  the 
other  two.  In  view  of  this  alternative,  I,  from 
that  time  on,  passed  as  the  father  of  the  “family” 
until  the  desert  was  crossed.  While  in  mid- 
desert we  were  told  that  a European  family  had 


The  Oriental  Idea  of  '^Father." 


239 


passed  that  way  not  long  before.  Inquiring 
more  particularly,  we  learned  that  the  “family” 
consisted  of  a photographer  and  his  two  assist- 
ants. Had  it  been  a party  of  seven  bachelors  all 
of  the  same  age,  it  would  have  been  still  one 
family,  and  the  most  venerable  appearing  man 
among  them  would  have  been  called  the  “father” 
of  the  other  six. 

There  is  nothing  new  in  this  comprehensive 
view  of  the  term  “ father.”  The  Bible  abounds 
with  illustrations  of  it.  In  the  very  earliest  story 
of  the  race,  it  is  said  of  Jabal : “He  was  the 
father  of  such  as  dwell  in  tents  and  have  cattle.”^ 
Here  the  fatherhood  is  clearly  not  of  natural 
descendants,  but  of  those  who  follow  in  the  same 
line  of  life  and  occupation.  Of  Jubal,  similarly, 
the  record  is  : “He  was  the  father  of  all  such  as 
handle  the  harp  and  pipe.”  ^ God’s  specific  dec- 
laration to  Abraham  was:  “The  father  of  a 

multitude  of  nations  have  I made  thee;”^  and 
the  inspired  comment  on  this  declaration  is : 
“That  they  which  be  of  faith  [all  of  them,  of 
whatever  natural  stock  they  may  be],  the  same 
are  sons  of  Abraham.”  * 

‘Gen.  4:20.  ^ Gen.  4:21.  ’Gen.  17:5.  ‘Gal.  3:7. 


240 


Studies  m Oriental  Social  Life. 


Later  on,  Joseph,  referring  to  his  providen- 
tial place  in  the  government  of  Egypt,  declares 
to  his  brethren : “ God  . . . hath  made  me  a 
father  to  Pharaoh,  and  lord  of  all  his  house,  and 
ruler  over  all  the  land  of  Egypt.”  ^ Here,  ap- 
parently, the  term  “father”  indicates  superiority 
of  position  by  a reversal  of  the  order  of  natural 
precedence — the  son  becoming  as  a father,  the 
subjed;  as  a sovereign.  “ I was  a father  [a  pro- 
tedor  and  dispenser  of  aid]  to  the  needy,” ^ says 
the  large-hearted  Job. 

“ Dwell  with  me,”  said  Micah  to  the  young 
Levite;  “and  be  unto  me  a father  and  a 
priest;”^  and  so  again  the  tribe  of  Danites  said 
to  the  same  Levite  : “Go  with  us,  and  be  to  tis 
a father  and  a priest : is  it  better  for  thee  to  be 
[a  father  and]  priest  unto  the  house  of  one  man, 
or  to  be  [a  father  and]  priest  unto  a tribe  and  a 
family  in  Israel In  this  case  it  is  a spiritual 
superiority,  over  one  or  over  many,  which  is  rec- 
ognized in  the  term  “father.”  Salma  is  called 
“the  father  [the  founder]  of  Bethlehem,”  ^ and 
“Joab  the  father  of  Ge-harashim  [or,  the  valley 

‘Gen.  45:8.  2job29:i6.  ^Judg.  17:10. 

‘Judg.  18  : 19.  * I Chron.  2 : 51. 


The  Oriental  Idea  of  Father." 


241 


of  craftsmen]  ; for  they  [in  that  valley]  were 
craftsmen.”^ 

An  inventor,  an  owner,  a master,  is,  in  Orien- 
tal usage,  a “father”  of  that  which  he  invents  or 
owns  or  controls.  Dr.  Thomson  says  that  “the 
Arabs  call  a person  distinguished  for  any  pecu- 
liarity the  father  of  it.  Thus,  a man  with  an 
uncommon  beard  is  named  Abie  dakn — “ Father 
of  a beard;”  and  I have  often  heard  myself 
called  Abu  taiigera — “ Father  of  a saucepan” — be- 
cause the  boys  in  the  street  fancied  that  my  hat 
resembled  that  black  article  of  kitchen  furniture.” 
Conversely,  the  followers  or  imitators  or  de- 
scendants of  a distinguished  personage  are  called 
his  children.  Thus  there  are  the  “sons  of  God”^ 
and  the  “daughters  of  men ; ” the  “sons  of 
Heth  ” * and  the  “sons  of  Midian  ; ” ° the  “chil- 
dren of  Abraham”®  and  the  “children  of  Israel 
the  “sons  of  Judah”*  and  the  “sons  of  Benja- 
* 1 Chron.  4:14. 

^ Job  I ; 6 ; 2:1;  Hos.  1:10;  John  1:12;  Rom.  8 : 14,  19  ; Phil. 
2:15;  I John  3 : 1,2. 

■Hjcn.  6 ; 2,  4.  ^ Gen.  25  : 10 ; 49  : 32.  * Gen.  25  ; 4. 

® John  8 : 39 ; Acts  13  : 26;  Gal.  3 : 7. 

’Gen.  32  ; 32  ; Exod.  12  : 27  ; Num.  2:2;  Ezek.  44  : 9 ; Hos.  3:4; 
Amos  9:7;  Matt.  27  : 9 ; Acts  5:21;  Re\’.  21:12. 

“ Num.  26  : 20 ; Ezra  3 : 9. 

16 


242  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

min  ; ” ^ the  “children  of  the  East ; the  “sons 
of  Belial”'^  and  the  “daughters  of  Belial,”* 
and  the  “ children  of  Belial  ; ” “ the  “ children  of 
wisdom,”'’’  the  “children  of  disobedience,”  and 
the  “children  of  wrath  the  “children  of  the 
bridechamber,” " and  the  “children  of  li^ht.” 

' O ’ 

and  many  another  similar  designation.  Dr. 
Thomson  calls  a Bed'wy  woman,  who  lives  in  a 
goat-hair  tent  while  tending  her  flock,  a “daugh- 
ter of  Jabal,”**  and  he  speaks  of  this  form  of 
expression  as  very  common  in  the  East. 

“ Brethren  and  fathers  ” was  the  address  of 
Stephen  to  the  Jewish  council,  as  indicating  his 
deference  to  those  who  were  his  seniors  in  years 
or  in  wisdom  ; and  Paul  used  the  same  form  of 
speech  to  the  multitude,  as  he  stood  a prisoner 
on  the  castle  stairs  in  Jerusalem.*'*  Evidently  it 
is  in  yet  another  view  of  the  term  “ father  ” that 
our  Lord  says  to  his  disciples,  “ Call  no  man 

' Num.  26  : 38,  41  ; i Chron.  8 : 40 ; 9:7;  Neh.  11:7. 

2 Judg.  6 : 3,  33  ; 7 : 12  ; 8 : 10;  i Kings  4 : 30. 

^ Judg.  19  : 22  ; I Sam.  2 : 12  ; 23  ; 6 ; I Kings  21  ; 10. 

^ I Sam.  I : 16. 

^ Deut.  13  : 13  ; Judg.  20:13  ; i Sam.  10  : 27 ; i Kings  21  : 13. 

® Luke  7:35.  ’ Eph.  2:2;  5:6;  Col.  3:6.  ® Eph.  2 : 3. 

“ Matt.  9:15;  Mark  2:19;  Luke  5 : 34. 

Luke  16:8;  I Thess.  5:5.  . " Cen.  4 : 20. 

‘■'Acts  7 : 2.  ‘'’Acts  22  : I. 


The  Oi-icntal  Idea  of  " FathcrT 


243 


your  father  on  the  earth  : for  one  is  your  Father, 
which  is  in  heaven.”  ^ The  thing  forbidden  here 
is  the  putting  one’s  self  in  servile  subjection  to 
an  earthly  teacher  of  spiritual  truth.  Paul  has 
no  fear  of  calling  his  natural  seniors  “fathers;” 
nor  does  he  hesitate  to  speak  of  himself  as  the 
spiritual  “father”  of  those  whom  he  has  begotten 
in  the  truth,  as  when  he  writes  to  the  Corin- 
thian converts  : “ P'or  though  ye  should  have  ten 
thousand  tutors  in  Christ,  yet  have  ye  not  many 
fathers  : for  in  Christ  Jesus  / begat  you  through 
the  gospel.  I beseech  you  therefore,  be  ye  imi- 
tators of  me.”  ‘^ 

The  very  term  “shaykh” — the  head  or  chieftain 
of  an  Arab  tribe — means  a venerable  man, — an 
elder  ; because  of  the  patriarchal  idea  that  the 
senior  ancestor  is,  by  his  very  seniority,  the  ruler 
of  all  his  descendants.  It  represents  the  idea 
which  underlies  a whole  class  of  words  in  our  own 
language,  such  as  “senior,”  “senator,”  “elder,” 
“ alderman,”  etc.  As  a matter  of  faCl,  the  shaykh 
is  not  always  the  oldest  man  of  his  tribe  ; for  the 
son  of  the  ruling  household  in  the  great  tribal 
family  may  come  into  succession  of  authority 
1 Matt.  23  : 9.  ’*1  Cor.  4:15,  16. 


244  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

while  much  younger  than  many  of  his  depend- 
ants : but  in  becoming  the  hereditary  shaykh  he 
assumes  the  paternal  office  in  the  tribe.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  shaykh  in  fad  will  at  all  times 
pay  a certain  deference  to  his  senior  in  years. 
For  example  : when  coffee  is  brought  in — and 
that  is  on  every  occasion  of  ceremony,  or  busi- 
ness, or  pleasure — the  eldest  person  in  the  com- 
pany must  be  served  first,  even  though  the 
shaykh  of  the  tribe  be  present  and  his  senior  be 
a beggar. 

Thus  the  divine  command  went  forth  to  Jeho- 
vah’s people:  “Thou  shalt  rise  up  before  the 
hoary  head,  and  honor  the  face  of  the  old  man.”  ^ 
And  in  the  East  that  command  is  well  heeded 
to  the  present  time.  At  Castle  Nakhl  we  changed 
camels,  and  changed  shaykhs  also,  Shaykh  Mus- 
leh  of  the  Teyaheh  Arabs  taking  the  place  of 
Shaykh  Moosa  of  the  Tawaras.  Because  of  his 
illness,  Shaykh  Musleh  was  unable  to  accompany 
us  to  Hebron,  and  he  sent  his  young  son,  Hamd, 
in  his  stead.  Hamd,  therefore,  was  to  be  honored 
and  obeyed  by  the  Bed'ween  of  our  party  as  their 
lawful  shaykh,  or  venerable  man,  while  he  was 

’ Lev.  19  : 32. 


The  Oriental  Idea  of  "'Father." 


245 


the  junior  of  them  all.  Yet  this  was  not  the  only 
ficlion  necessary  to  conform  to  the  desert  idea 
of  the  term  “father.”  I was  the  assumed  “father” 
of  the  traveling  party  to  be  escorted  ; and  more 
than  this,  I was  much  the  senior  in  years  of 
Shaykh  Hamd,  and  had  a patriarchal  beard, 
while  he  was  beardless.  This  difficulty  must  be 
met  by  another  constructive  relationship.  When 
the  details  of  the  trip  were  fully  arranged,  Shaykh 
Musleh  brought  his  son  Hamd  to  me,  and,  having 
placed  the  son’s  right  hand  between  my  two 
hands,  he  took  our  three  hands  together  between 
his  two,  and  said  to  me  in  Arabic:  “This  has 
been  my  son  ; now  he  is  your  son.  Be  to  him  a 
good  father.”  And  so,  for  the  remainder  of  the 
trip  over  the  desert.  I was  the  “father”  of  the 
young  shaykh  as  well  as  of  my  young  American 
companions,  while  the  young  shaykh  was  “father” 
of  all  our  Bed'ween  attendants.  So,  including  my 
children  by  courtesy,  and  the  children  of  my 
newly  borrowed  son,  I had  quite  a family  with 
me  by  the  time  I reached  Hebron. 

In  just  such  harmless  fictions,  or  assumptions 
of  relationship,  as  this — so  prominent  in  Oriental 
life — lie  the  germs  of  great  principles,  wide  reach- 


246 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


ing  in  their  application.  Sir  Henr}^  Sumner 
Maine  says  of  this  very  praclice,  in  ancient  law, 
of  counting  all  who  are  under  one  authority  as 
members  of  the  same  family  with  a common 
father,  even  though  they  are  not  of  kin  ; “This 
condicl;  between  belief  or  theory  and  notorious 
facd  is  at  first  sight  extremely  perplexing;  but 
what  it  really  illustrates  is  the  efficiency  with 
which  legal  fiedions  do  their  work  in  the  infancy 
of  society.  The  earliest  and  most  extensively 
employed  of  legal  fiedions  was  that  which  per- 
mitted family  relations  to  be  created  artificially, 
and  there  is  none  to  which  I conceive  mankind 
to  be  more  deeply  indebted.” 

Of  the  far-reaching  scope  and  essential  limita- 
tions of  this  construedive  family  relation,  he  says 
further:  “The  family,  then,  is  the  type  of  an 

archaic  society,  in  all  the  modifications  which  it 
was  capable  of  assuming  ; but  the  family  here 
spoken  of  is  not  exactly  the  family  as  understood 
by  a modern.  In  order  to  reach  the  ancient  con- 
ception, we  must  give  to  our  modern  ideas  an  im- 
portant extension  and  an  important  limitation. 
We  must  look  on  the  family  as  constantly  enlarged 
by  the  absorption  of  strangers  within  its  circle, 


The  Oriental  Idea  of  "Father." 


247 


and  we  must  try  to  regard  the  fiction  of  adoption 
as  so  closely  simulating  the  reality  of  kinship 
that  neither  law  nor  opinion  makes  the  slightest 
difference  between  a real  and  an  adoptive  con- 
nection. On  the  other  hand,  the  persons  theo- 
retically amalgamated  into  a family  by  their 
common  descent  are  practically  held  together  by 
common  obedience  to  their  highest  living  ascen- 
dant, the  father,  grandfather,  or  great-grand- 
father ” — or  the  accepted  representative  of  such 
“ascendant,”  when  in  any  instance  the  shaykh 
(or  elder,  by  another  fiction)  be  a junior.  This 
truth  it  is  which  brings  Urquhart  to  say;  “The 
structure  of  Eastern  government  is  but  the  en- 
largement of  the  paternal  roof.”  The  head  of 
that  government  is  the  father  of  all  his  people. 

In  this  idea  of  the  fatherhood  of  the  ruler, 
and  of  the  unity  of  the  family  ruled  by  him, 
there  is  the  germ  of  the  two  tables  of  the  Law  : 
the  looking  upward  reverently  to  the  parents 
as  toward  God,  whom  they  represent ; the  look- 
ing outward  with  love  toward  all  fellow-subjeCds 
of  the  one  ruler  as  brothers  and  equals.  If 
only  the  idea  were  carried  far  enough,  it  in- 
cluded the  common  fatherhood  of  God  and  the 


248  Studies  ill  Oriental  Social  Life. 

common  brotherhood  of  all  men.  So  it  was 
“from  the  bea-inninm”  ^ 

O O N 

In  the  old  Egyptian  theology  — where  are 
many  glimpses  of  God’s  original  revelation  to 
man — the  King’s  right  to  rule  is  based  on  his 
sonship  from  God.  Le  Page  Renouf  says  on 
this  point;  “Amenophis  II.  is  the  ‘victorious 
Horns;  who  has  all  nations  subject  to  him,  a 
god  good  like  Ra,  the  sacred  emanation  of 
Amen,  the  son  whom  he  begot ; he  it  is  who 
placed  thee  in  Thebes  as  sovereign  of  the  living, 
to  represent  him.’  The  King  himself  says,  ‘It  is 
my  father  Ra,  who  has  ordained  all  these  things. 

. . . He  has  ordained  for  me  all  that  belonged  to 
him.  . . . All  lands,  all  nations,  the  entire  compass 
of  the  great  circuit  [of  the  sun],  come  to  me  as 
my  subjects.’  . . . The  royal  inscriptions  are  full 
of  similar  language.  . . . There  is  a long  inscrip- 
tion which  first  appears  in  honor  of  Rameses  II., 
at  Ipsambul.  . . . The  god  says  to  the  king,  ‘ I 
am  i\\\  father ; by  me  are  begotten  all  thy  mem- 
bers as  divine.’  ” 

Not  only  did  the  sovereign  of  Egypt  make 
this  claim  for  himself,  but  it  was  conceded  to 
’ Matt.  19  : 4-8 ; Mai.  2 ; 15;  Jer.  6 : 16. 


The  Oriental  Idea  of  Father." 


249 


him  by  all  his  people.  “ The  doctrine  was 
universally  received.  ‘Thou  art,’  says  an  ode 
translated  by  M.  Chabas  and  Mr.  Goodwin,  ‘as 
it  were  the  image  of  thy  father  the  Sun,  who 
rises  in  heaven.  Thy  beams  penetrate  the 
cavern.  No  place  is  without  thy  goodness.  Thy 
sayings  are  the  law  of  every  land.’  . . . ‘This  is 
not  the  language  of  a courtier.  It  seems  to  be 
a genuine  expression  of  the  belief  that  the  king 
was  the  living  representative  of  Deity.’  ” With 
this  view  of  the  origin  of  all  human  authority, 
to  honor  the  father  was  to  honor  the  God- 
appointed  ruler,  and  to  honor  the  God-appointed 
ruler  was  to  reverence  God  through  his  repre- 
sentative. 

To  this  day,  reverence  for  parents  is  wellnigh 
universal  in  all  the  East.  “An  undutiful  child  is 
very  seldom  heard  of  among  the  Egyptians  or  the 
Arabs  in  general,”  says  Mr.  Lane.  “Among 
the  middle  and  higher  classes,  the  child  usually 
greets  the  father  in  the  morning  by  kissing  his 
hand,  and  then  stands  before  him  in  an  humble 
attitude,  with  the  left  hand  covered  by  the  right, 
to  receive  any  order,  or  to  await  his  permission  to 
depart;  but,  after  the  respeClful  kiss,  [the  child] 


250 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


is  often  taken  on  the  lap.  . . . Nearly  the  same 
respeCl  is  shown  [by  the  child]  toward  the 
mother.  . . . Sons  scarcely  ever  sit,  or  eat,  or 
smoke,  in  the  presence  of  the  father,  unless  bid- 
den to  do  so;  and  they  often  even  wait  upon 
him,  and  upon  his  guests,  at  meals  and  on  other 
occasions:  they  do  not  cease  to  acd  thus  when 
they  have  become  men.” 

A glimpse  of  this  peculiarity  was  given  me  at 
Castle  Nakhl,  while  the  negotiations  were  pro- 
ceeding leisurely  with  Shaykh  IVIusleh  for  our  es- 
cort to  Hebron.  When  pipes  and  cigarettes  were 
proffered  to  the  Arab  guests,  young  Hamd  po- 
litely declined  them  in  his  turn.  At  this  I 
essayed  a compliment  to  him  for  not  being  a 
tobacco-user  ; but  a grim  smile  came  over  his 
face,  and  our  dragoman  informed  me  that  a 
Bed'wy  son  could  not  smoke  in  his  father’s  pres- 
ence, although  he  would  be  glad  to  do  it  when 
his  father  was  out  of  sight.  Then  I remembered 
to  have  seen  more  than  one  American  boy  pull  a 
cigarette  out  of  his  mouth,  or  thrust  a lighted  pipe 
into  his  pocket,  when  he  saw  his  father  coming  ; 
but  I had  not  before  connected  this  with  an  over- 
sensitive regard  for  the  Fifth  Commandment. 


The  Oriental  Idea  of  Father T 


251 


The  mother,  also,  was  always  entitled  to  honor, 
in  the  East,  as  having  authority  from  God.  Her 
equality  with  the  father  before  God,  even  though 
second  to  her  husband  in  precedence  in  the  line 
of  authority,  was  “from  the  beginning.”  Long 
before  the  days  of  Moses,  a woman’s  right  to 
succeed  her  husband  or  her  father  on  the  throne 
of  Egypt  had  been  formally  proclaimed  by  royal 
edied.  The  king’s  mother  was  in  a certain  sense 
the  king’s  superior.  The  place  of  queen-dowa- 
ger has  been  at  times  of  chief  importance  to  the 
kingdom,  from  the  days  of  Aahmes-Nefertari,  of 
Egypt,  down  to  the  days  of  the  mother  of  the  Em- 
peror of  China,  including  many  of  the  queen- 
mothers  of  Judah  and  of  Israel.  ^ “In  domestic  life, 
the  Egyptian  [of  early  time]  was  attached  to  his 
wife  and  children,  and  the  equality  of  the  female 
sex  with  the  male  most  marked  ; the  Egyptian 
woman  always  appearing  as  the  equal  and  com- 
panion of  her  father,  brethren,  and  husband.” 
Even  now  the  mother-in-law  reigns  supreme 
in  the  Egyptian  household  so  long  as  she  has 
strength  to  keep  control.  And  as  it  is  in  Egypt, 

1 1 Kings  2 : 19,  20  ; 1 1 ; 26 ; 14  ; 21,31  ; 1 5 ; 2,  10 ; 22  : 42  ; 2 
Kings  1 1 ; I ; 12:1;  14  ; 2 ; 15  : 2,  33 ; 18  : 2 ; 21  : i,  19 ; 22  : i ; 
23  : 31,  36 ; 24  ; 8,  12,  15,  18 ; 2 Chron.  24  : i. 


252 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


so  it  is  in  the  desert;  and  so  it  has  been  in  all 
the  centuries,  among-  the  unchanging  Orientals. 
The  father  and  the  mother  are  looked  at  as 
God’s  representatives  in  authority  — however 
I)oorly  they  may  fill  their  representative  place. 
.\nd  this  is  the  obvious  idea  of  God’s  revelation 
concerning  the  family. 

Read  in  the  light  of  the  land  where  it  was  first 
proclaimed,  the  Fifth  Commandment^  means  a 
great  deal  more  than  a command  to  honor  the 
human  authors  of  our  being.  It  is  a call  to  re- 
vere all  who  are  above  us  as  the  representatives 
of  God  ; the  parents  in  the  household  ; the  ven- 
erable ones  in  the  community  ; the  rulers  in  the 
state,  the  elders  and  overseers  in  the  church  ; all 
those  who  have  authority  over  us  and  under  God. 

And  the  basal  idea  of  the  promise  accom- 
panying this  commandment  is,  that  thus,  and  thus 
alone,  are  secured  stability  and  permanency  to  the 
life  of  the  individual,  of  the  family,  of  the  tribe, 
and  of  the  nation.  Reverent  subordination  to 
God-given  authority  is  the  surest  guard  of  length 
of  days  in  the  possession  of  any  home  or  land 
which  the  Lord  gives  for  an  inheritance.'-^ 


’ Exod.  20  : 12. 


’'Eph.  6:  I. 


The  Oriental  Idea  of  "Father." 


253 

It  is  a remarkable  fa6l  that  China,  whose  gov- 
ernment has  been  longer  established  than  any 
other  now  existing,  is  founded  on  the  basis  of  this 
commandment.  “ Filial  piety,”  says  Professor 
Douglas,  “ is  the  leading  principle  in  Chinese 
ethics.  It  is  the  point  upon  which  every  teacher, 
from  Confucius  downwards,  has  most  strongly 
insisted,  and  its  almost  universal  practice  affords 
ground  for  the  belief  held  by  some  that  in  the 
long  continuance  of  the  empire  the  Chinese  are 
reaping  the  reward  held  out  in  the  Fifth  Com- 
mandment of  the  Mosaic  decalogue.”  But  the 
trouble  with  China  is  that  it  recognizes  only  one 
commandment  in  the  decalogue,  and  misses  the 
gain  of  keeping  other  commandments. 

Reverence  for  parents,  as  the  Chinese  under- 
stand it,  includes  reverence  for  all  one’s  ancestors, 
and  for  the  emperor  as  the  human  father  of  all. 
Among  the  examples  of  filial  devotion  taught  in 
Chinese  text-books  is  the  story  of  Yu  Shun,  who 
is  said  to  have  lived  twenty-two  centuries  before 
our  era.  “His  father  was  stupid”  and  “his 
mother  depraved  ; ” but  he  was  so  loving  and 
dutiful  a son  that  God  gave  him  elephants  with 
which  to  plow  his  field,  and  birds  to  weed  it  ; 


254 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

and  the  emperor  sent  nine  of  his  sons  to  be  his 
servants,  and  gave  him  two  of  his  daughters  to 
be  his  wives.  Finally  the  emperor  abdicated  in 
his  favor,  feeling  sure  that  one  who  could  be  so 
dutiful  a son  could  govern  an  empire. 

It  is  in  this  way  that  Orientals  generally  look 
at  the  duty  of  filial  devotion.  The  “ father  ” 
idea  with  them  includes  God  as  over  all,  and  all 
who  stand  between  one’s  self  and  God. 


PRAYERS  AND  PRAYING  IN 
THE  EAST. 


Many  of  the  Bible  references  to  prayer  would 
have  little  meaning  if  they  were  not  made  clear 
in  the  light  of  prayers  and  praying  in  the  un- 
changeable East.  “They  love  to  stand  and 
pray  in  the  synagogues  and  in  the  corners  of 
streets,  that  they  may  be  seen  of  men.”  ^ That 
is  not  our  way  of  praying,  but  it  is  the  way  of 
the  Orientals. 

It  was  a few  hours  after  my  landing  at  Alex- 
. * Matt.  6 : 5. 


255 


256  Studies  ill  Oriental  Social  Life. 

andria  that,  as  I stood  in  the  Place  Muham- 
mad ’Alee,  I saw  for  the  first  time  an  Oriental  at 
prayer.  It  was  an  Arab  fruit-seller,  at  his  little 
portable  stand  in  the  open  square.  The  mu’az- 
zin’s  call  had  sounded  out,  from  the  minaret  of 
a neighboring  mosk,  to  sunset  prayer,  and  the 
Arab,  in  the  lack  of  his  prayer-mat  (for  a Mu- 
hammadan is  reluclant  to  touch  the  unclean 
ground  in  his  prayer-prostrations),  had  mounted 
one  of  the  little  benches  that  skirt  the  square, 
and  begun  his  conventional  Muhammadan  prayer. 
The  busy  throng  surged  past  him  without  inter- 
rupting his  prescribed  posturing,  or  diverting  his 
attention.  Meanwhile,  an  Arab  boy,  who  had 
come  up  for  a trade,  stood  by  in  waiting  until 
the  prayer  was  finished  and  the  dealer  was  ready 
for  another  bargain.  This  novel  sight  soon  be- 
came a familiar  one.  At  the  corners  of  the 
streets  and  in  the  mosks,  in  all  the  Eastern  cities 
which  1 visited,  men  stood  and  prayed,  and  evi- 
dently loved  to  stand  and  pray,  in  proof  to  their 
fellows  of  their  prayerful  ness. 

Again  it  was  after  our  first  night  on  the  des- 
ert. at  the  W'ells  of  INIoses.  on  the  eastern  shore 
of  the  Red  Sea,  near  the  probable  crossing-place 


Prayers  and  Prayuig  in  the  East.  257 

of  the  children  of  Israel,^  that  I was  wakened  in 
the  early  morning  by  a sound  of  prayer  that  was 
evidently  intended  to  be  heard  of  men — whether 
God  should  hear  it  or  not.  It  was  a prolonged 
and  energetic  intoning,  with  an  occasional  rise 
of  the  voice  that  would  make  sure  of  starting 
the  soundest  sleeper.  It  had  its  effecd.  I was 
up  and  astir.  When  the  prayer  had  ended,  my 
faithful  dragoman  appeared  at  my  tent  door. 
“Good  morning,  my  master,”  he  said;  “I  hope 
you  are  well  this  morning.”  And  when  he  was 
satisfied  on  that  point,  he  added;  “ Did  you  hear 
me  pray  this  morning,  my  master?”  “Indeed  I 
did,”  was  my  reply.  And  then  he  told  me  of  his 
zeal  and  earnestness  in  prayer,  and  of  the  scope 
and  reach  of  his  prayers  ; determined  that  if  he 
could  not  be  seen  of  men  in  his  sunrise  prayers, 
he  would  be  heard  of  men,  in  his  prayers,  and 
concerning  them. 

When,  some  weeks  after,  we  stood  on  the  bor- 
ders of  the  Holy  Land,  at  the  wells  of  Beer- 
sheba,^ — at  the  old  home  of  Abraham  and  Isaac 
* E.\od.  14  : 9. 

^ Gen.  21  : 14 ; 21  : 31-33 ; 22  : 19;  26  : 23,  33 ; 28  : 10 ; 46  ; i,  5 ; 
I Kings  19  : 3 ; 2 Kings  12:1;  i Chron.  4 : 28 ; 2 Chron.  19  ; 4; 
24  ; 1 ; Neh.  1 1 ; 27. 


17 


Studies  in  Oriental  Soeial  Life. 


258 

and  Jacob  and  Esau, — while  a motley  throng  of 
Arabs  and  Nubians,  with  their  sheep  and  cam- 
els, were  drawing  water  from  the  ancient  wells, 
and  we  were  exchanging  greetings  with  a surly 
’Azazimeh  shaykh,  the  blazing  sun  reached  its 
midday  height  above  us.  As  the  old  shaykh 
observed  this,  he  ostentatiously  prepared  himself 
for  prayer.  Spreading  his  cloak  on  the  glaring 
desert  chalk-bed,  he  turned  his  face  Meccah- 
ward  and  gave  himself  to  his  devotions  with  an 
absorbed  intensity  that  was  utterly  oblivious  of 
the  din  and  confusion  about  him.  He  alone  of 
his  party  stood  and  prayed.  And  when  he  had 
finished  his  prayer,  there  was  a look  of  compla- 
cency on  his  face  because  he  had  been  seen  of 
men  to  pray  ; for  he  knew  as  well  as  we  that  it  is 
not  a common  thing  for  a Bed'wy  to  be  a pray- 
ing man.  He  was  complimented  on  his  prayer- 
fulness by  our  dragoman  ; and  he  graciously  re- 
ceived the  meed  of  praise  as  his  fitting  due. 

“And  in  praying  use  not  vain  repetitions,  as 
the  Gentiles  do  : for  they  think  that  they  shall 
be  heard  for  their  much  speaking.”  ^ IMy  first 
illustration  of  that  text  was  obtained  in  Cairo, 


’ Matt.  6 : 7. 


Prayers  and  Praying  in  the  East. 


259 


at  a gathering  of  the  “ howling,”  or  “shouting,” 
darweeshes  in  the  performance  of  their  “zikrs,” 
or  invocations  of  the  name  of  God.  It  was  on 
a Friday — the  Muhammadan  Sabbath.  It  was 
in  a room  of  the  Mosk  Akbar  devoted  to  such 
services  as  this,  somewhat  like  a small  skating- 
rink.  These  darweeshes  are  a class  of  men  de- 
voting themselves  to  religious  ceremonials,  like 
the  Pharisees  of  old,  or  the  friars  of  modern 
Romanism. 

Standing,  or  crouching,  (or  both  by  turns,)  in 
a circle,  facing  inward,  the  darweeshes  began 
their  worship  by  simply  repeating  aloud  the  Mu- 
hammadan name  of  God,  “Allah!”  “Allah  I 
“Allah!”  This  they  did,  not  merely  once,  nor 
twice,  nor  a score  of  times,  but  hundreds  of 
times  in  rapid  succession.  The  word  itself  was 
jerked  out  convulsively  from  the  very  lowest 
depths  of  the  lungs,  with  a terminal  emphasis 
and  prolonging  of  its  peculiar  hollow  sound  ; at 
the  same  time  the  whole  body  was  swayed  to 
and  fro  as  if  in  the  effort  to  put  added  force  into 
the  sepulchral  ejaculations.  Again,  the  phrase 
spoken  was  varied  by  Allah  akbar," — “God 
is  great;”  and  ^Ed  ildha  illd  Allah," — “There 


26o 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


is  no  god  but  God.”  The  swaying  of  the  bodies 
increased  in  intensity,  and  the  rapidity  of  the 
utterances  kept  pace  with  this,  until  the  long  hair 
of  some  of  the  worshipers  alternately  touched 
the  ground  behind  their  backs  and  before  their 
feet,  in  almost  lightning-like  swiftness,  and  it 
seemed  as  if  the  very  heads  of  the  darweeshes 
were  flying  from  their  shoulders.  These  invoca- 
tions and  bodily  movements  were  continued  until 
ecstatic  exhaustion  was  attained  to,  and  a final 
cry  of  “ Hoo'  ” — or  He,  The  Person,  The  God — 
terminated  the  worshiper’s  devotions. 

While  this  was  the  course  of  the  more  vigor- 
ous and  able-bodied  men  in  the  circle,  the  older 
and  more  feeble  ones  would  gently  move  their 
bodies  back  and  forth,  in  time  with  the  wilder 
worship,  and  give  fainter  expression  to  the  one 
monotonous  cry  to  God.  When  the  scene  came 
to  be  that  of  a circle  of  maniacs  in  the  height  of 
their  delirium,  an  Egyptian  who  stood  near  me 
in  the  larger  circle  of  curious  or  of  devout  spec- 
tators, exclaimed  in  admiration,  “They  are  very 
religious  men.”  “ They  are  very  good  men.”  But 
1 recalled,  with  a new  understanding  of  its  mean- 
ing, that  record  of  the  four  hundred  and  fifty 


Prayers  a?td  Praying  in  the  East. 


261 


prophets  of  Baal  on  the  summit  of  Mount  Car- 
mel who  called  on  the  name  of  Baal  from  morn- 
ing until  noon,  saying,  “O  Baal,  hear  us!  O Baal, 
hear  us!  O Baal,  hear  us !”'  And  I appreciated 
afresh  the  suggestion  of  our  Lord,  that  in  multiply- 
ing their  vain  repetitions  such  worshipers  “ think 
that  they  shall  be  heard  for  their  much  speaking.”  ^ 
A form  of  prayer  in  common  use  among  Bood- 
dhists,  in  Tibet  and  other  regions  of  the  far  East, 
is  a sentence  of  six  syllables  : “ Om  niani  padme 
Hum," — “ Om!  the  Jewel  in  the  Lotus  ! Hum!" 
Sir  Monier  Monier-Williams  says  of  this  mystical 
formula  ; “ No  other  prayer  used  by  human  be- 
ings in  any  quarter  of  the  globe  is  repeated  so 
often.”  It  is  thought  by  the  Tibetans  to  be  “a 
panacea  for  all  evil,  a compendium  of  all  knowl- 
edge, a treasury  of  all  wisdom,  a summary  of  all 
religion.”  The  more  times  it  can  be  repeated  by 
the  lips,  or  by  aid  of  any  mechanical  contrivance, 
the  better  it  will  be  for  the  one  who  causes  its 
utterance.  Every  time  it  is  repeated,  it  will,  ac- 
cording to  Booddhistic  belief,  shorten  the  period 
of  its  utterer’s  continuance  in  the  misery  and  evil 
of  some  subsequent  state  of  existence. 


I Kings  18  : 26. 


^ Matt.  6 : 7. 


262  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

“The  words  [of  this  prayer]  are  written  or 
printed  on  roll  within  roll  of  paper,  and  inscribed 
within  cylinders,  which,  when  made  to  revolve 
either  by  educated  monks  or  by  illiterate  laymen, 
have  the  same  efficacy  as  if  they  were  actually 
said  or  repeated.  The  revolutions  are  credited 
as  so  much  prayer-merit,  or,  to  speak  more  scien- 
tifically, as  so  much  prayer-force,  accumulated 
and  stored  up  for  the  benefit  of  the  person  who 
revolves  them.” 

Sir  Monier  gives  an  illustration  of  this  praying 
by  machinery,  as  he  saw  it  at  a Booddhist  temple 
in  Darjiling  : “ I found  several  large  barrel-like 
cylinders  set  up  close  to  each  other  in  a row  at 
the  [temple]  entrance,  so  that  no  one  might  pass 
in  without  giving  them  at  least  one  twirl,  or  by 
a rapid  sweep  of  the  hand  might  set  them  all 
twirling  at  once.  Inside  the  entrance  portico  a 
shriveled  and  exceptionally  hideous  old  woman 
was  seated  on  the  ground.  In  her  left  hand  she 
held  a small  portable  prayer-cylinder,  which  she 
kept  in  perpetual  revolution.  In  her  right  hand 
was  a cord  connected  with  a huge  barrel-like 
cylinder,  which,  with  some  exertion,  she  made  to 
rotate  on  its  axis  by  help  of  a crank,  while  she 


Prayers  and  Prayuig  in  the  East. 


263 


kept  muttering  “ Oni  ma7ii pami7ie  Hum"  (so  she 
pronounced  it)  with  amazing  rapidity.  In  this 
way  she  completed  at  least  sixty  oral  repetitions 
ev^ery  minute,  without  reckoning  the  infinite  num- 
ber of  rotary  repetitions  accomplished  simultane- 
ously by  her  two  hands.” 

It  is  plain  enough  that  there  are  heathen  who 
“think  that  they  shall  be  heard  for  their  much 
speaking,”^  and  our  Lord  seemed  to  think  that 
there  was  a danger  in  his  day  of  those  who  were 
better  informed  making  the  same  error.  Are  we 
sure  that  there  is  nothing  of  the  sort  among 
Christians  in  our  day?  Do  we  never  hear  the 
hope  expressed  that  a certain  thing  will  come  to 
pass  because  “so  many  prayers  have  been  offered 
for  it,”  or  that  a wild  young  man  will  surely  re- 
form before  his  death,  because  “ he  is  a child  of 
so  many  prayers  ” ? 

That  simple  and  comprehensive  prayer  which 
we  call  the  Lord’s  Prayer,  and  which  is  the  ac- 
cepted model  of  all  Christian  prayers,  was  given 
by  Jesus  to  his  disciples  on  this  wise:  “And  it 
came  to  pass,  as  he  was  praying  in  a certain 
place,  that  when  he  ceased,  one  of  his  disciples 
* Matt.  6 ; 7. 


264  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

said  unto  him,  Lord,  teach  us  to  pray,  even  as 
John  also  taught  his  disciples  and  Jesus  then 
gave  them  his  matchless  pattern  of  prayer^  as 
it  has  come  down  to  us  in  the  Gospels.  John’s 
directions  for  prayer  are  not  preserved  to  us  ; 
but  from  all  that  we  know  of  ancient  methods  of 
prayer  in  the  East,  we  have  reason  to  suppose 
that  the  Jewish  disciples  of  both  John  and  Jesus 
were  accustomed  to  give  large  prominence  to 
ritual  observances  in  prayer  ; and  that  their  re- 
quest, “Teach  us  to  pray,”^  included  the  idea  of 
a prescribed  form  in  prayer,  and  of  essential 
accompaniments  of  prayer,  however  their  Master 
may  have  met  and  answered  their  request. 

On  the  Egyptian  monuments,  and  in  the 
Egyptian  papyri,  are  forms  of  prayer  which  were 
evidently  in  universal  acceptance;  and  the  Fune- 
real Ritual,  or  Book  of  the  Dead,  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, was  most  explicit  in  prescribing  forms  of 
prayer  and  methods  of  using  those  forms.  Por- 
tions of  this  ritual  went  back  to  a period  long 
before  the  days  of  Abraham. 

The  rabbinical  directions  for  prayer  included 

^ Matt.  6:9-13;  Luke  1 1 : 2-4. 

® Luke  1 1 : I . 


' Luke  1 1 : I. 


Prayers  and  Praying  m the  East.  265 


prescriptions  in  details  of  dress,  posture,  time, 
and  place,  as  well  as  of  tone,  manner,  and 
phrasing;  basing  each  injunction  on  some  sup- 
posed command  of  Scripture.  Thus,  for  ex- 
ample, the  direction  to  sway  the  body  to  and 
fro,  while  calling  on  the  Lord,  is  said  to  be  in 
accordance  with  Psalm  35  : 10  : “All  my  bones 
shall  say.  Lord.”  And  again  the  requirement 
of  the  abdominal  responses  (like  the  danveeshes’ 
“Al-/i/^/”)  is  found  in  Psalm  130  : i : “Out  of 
the  depths  have  I cried  unto  thee,  O Lord.” 

In  the  estimation  of  a pious  Muhammadan,  a 
prayer  is  no  prayer  unless  all  the  essential  re- 
quirements of  the  prayer  ritual  are  complied 
with  ; and  to  teach  a disciple  how  to  pray,  is  no 
insignificant  part  of  Muhammadan  religious  in- 
struction. It  was  in  the  superb  Mosk  Sultan 
Hassan  in  Cairo,  that  I first  saw  a Muhamma- 
dan carefully  preparing  himself  for  prayer,  and 
praying  acceptably — as  Jie  looked  at  the  stand- 
ard of  acceptable  prayer. 

We  who  were  visiting  the  mosk  together  had 
put  off  our  shoes  from  our  feet  at  the  entrance 
of  the  inner  court,  in  order  that  we  might 
not  defile  the  holy  ground  within  that  sacred 


2 66  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

enclosure.  Then,  our  devout  Alexandrian  drago- 
man asked  that  he  be  permitted  to  pray,  while 
we  moved  about  the  mosk  at  our  pleasure.  Ap- 
proaching the  larger  fountain  in  the  center  of 
the  court,  he  proceeded  to  cleanse  himself  cere- 
monially, to  “sancdify”  himself  for  prayer,  by 
the  “wLizoo,”  or  prescribed  ablutions.^  With 
special  ejaculations  at  ever}^  stage  of  progress, 
he  washed  his  hands  three  times,  “ in  the  name 
of  God,  the  Compassionate,  the  Merciful.” 

Three  times  he  rinsed  his  mouth  from  the  foun- 
tain ; three  times  he  similarly  cleansed  his  nos- 
trils, his  ears,  his  face,  his  head,  and  his  neck  ; 
then  his  right  hand  and  arm,  and  again  his  left  ; 
and  his  right  foot  and  his  left.^  After  a few  more 
prescribed  ascriptions  and  petitions  to  God,  he 
was  ready  to  turn  toward  Meccah,  and  begin  his 
formal  prayer.  That  prayer  itself  involved  the 
closest  adherence  to  ritual  observances  in  pos- 
ture and  phrasing.  The  feet  must  be  properly 
placed,  to  begin  with.  Next,  the  open  hands 

* See  Num.  ii  : i8;  Josh.  3:5;  17  : 13;  i Sam.  16:  5 ; i Chron. 
16  : 1 1 ; Matt.  15:1;  Mark  7 ; 3. 

^ See  Gen.  32  ; 25  ; Exod.  29  ; 19-21 ; Lev.  8 : 12,  22-30;  Eccl.  9 : 
10;  Isa.  6:7;  Jer.  1:9:  Matt.  8 : 15 ; 9 : 29 ; Mark  7 : 33;  Luke 
22  : 51 ; John  12:3. 


Prayers  and  Prayhig  in  the  East.  267 


must  be  raised  to  either  side  of  the  face,  the 
thumbs  touching  the  lobes  of  the  ears.  Then 
the  bowing  and  kneeling  and  prostrating  must 
be  in  prescribed  order,  and  in  conjunction  with 
prescribed  phrases  of  prayer. 

A slip  in  the  ritual  at  any  point  is  supposed 
to  nullify  the  entire  prayer  of  a Muhammadan. 
With  such  an  idea  of  prayer,  the  request,  “Teach 
us  to  pray,”  ^ has  a well-defined  technical  mean- 
ing, throughout  the  East.  That  dragoman  came 
to  me  one  evening,  on  the  desert,  and  told  me 
that  he  had  been  teaching  a group  of  the  Ta- 
warah  Bed'ween  to  pray.  And  when,  after  much 
experimenting,  his  pupils  were  sufficiently  drilled 
to  go  through  the  ritual  without  a blunder,  their 
teacher  seemed  as  well  satisfied  with  the  result 
as  a strict  Presbyterian  would  be  if  his  scholars 
could  recite  the  entire  Westminster  Catechism, 
or  as  the  averagfe  teacher  would  be  when  all  in 
his  class  could  repeat  the  titles,  topics,  and 
golden  texts  of  the  last  quarter’s  lessons.  There 
are,  however,  allowances  made  for  failures  in 
literal  conformity  to  the  ritual,  through  physical 
obstacles.  Thus,  for  example,  in  the  desert, 


* Luke  1 1 : I. 


268 


Studies  in  Orieiital  Social  Life. 


where  water  is  not  easily  obtainable,  the  Mu- 
hammadan is  permitted  to  use  sand  or  dust  in 
his  wuzoo. 

There  are  various  postures  in  every  form  of 
prayer  in  the  East.  An  Oriental  would  not 
think  of  remaining  standing,  or  kneeling,  or  pros- 
trate, during  an  entire  prayer.  He  would  take 
one  position  in  one  portion  of  his  prayer,  an- 
other in  another,  and  so  on.  In  the  light  of  this 
facl  it  will  be  seen  how  silly  it  is  to  attempt  to 
find  from  the  Bible  narrative  what  was  proper 
posture  in  prayer  in  olden  time.  It  was  stand- 
ing, and  it  was  crouching  or  squatting,  and  it 
was  kneeling  and  it  was  lying  prostrate, — each 
and  all  of  these  positions.^  We  have  reason  to 
suppose  that  our  Lord  and  his  disciples  con- 
formed to  the  customs  prevalent  in  their  time,  of 
varying  postures  in  prayer. 

The  Muhammadan  idea  of  always  turning 
•toward  Meccah  in  prayer,  as  to  the  chief  sanctu- 
ary of  his  religion,  is  but  an  adaptation  of  the 
idea  of  the  ancient  Hebrew  in  turning  toward 

* See  Gen.  17  : 3,  22 ; 24.  : 48 ; Num.  16  : 22  ; Josh.  5 : 14 ; 7:6; 
I Kings  8 : 22,  54  ; i Chron.  21  ; 16, 17  ; 2 Chron.  6 ; 13  ; 20  : 18 ; Ezra 
9:5;  10  : I ; Psa.  95  : 6;  Matt.  17  : 14;  Luke  22  ; 41  ; Acts  7 ; 60 ; 
9 ; 40  ; 20  : 36  ; 21  : 5. 


Prayers  and  Praying  in  the  East.  269 

the  temple  at  Jerusalem;  and  there  seems  to  be 
a survival  of  that  in  the  eastward  position  in 
worship  deemed  important  by  many  Christians. 
At  the  dedication  of  that  temple,  Solomon 
prayed  God  to  hear  and  answer  every  prayer 
prayed  toward  that  sancduary,'  even  though  it 
were  from  those  who  turned  toward  the  Holy  City 
and  its  temple  from  a far-off  land  of  their  captiv- 
ity. And  when  Daniel  was  a captive  in  Babylon, 
“his  windows  were  open  in  his  chamber  toward 
Jerusalem  ; and  he  kneeled  upon  his  knees  three 
times  a day,  and  prayed,  and  gave  thanks  before 
his  God.”  ^ 

Early  in  his  career  as  a prophet,  Muhammad 
prayed  toward  Jerusalem,  but  after  a while  he 
changed  the  diredlion — or  “qiblah,”  as  it  is  called, 
— of  his  devotions ; and  he  commanded  his  fol- 
lowers to  pray  toward  the  Ka'bah  at  Meccah.  It 
has  been  said  that  this  change  of  qiblah  by  the 
Prophet  materially  affedled  the  relation  of  Mu- 
hammadanism toward  other  religious  beliefs. 
Had  Jerusalem  remained  a center  of  interest  in 
the  hour  of  prayer  to  Jew,  to  Christian,  and  to 
Muhammadan,  there  would  have  been  a ten- 


’ I Kings  8 : 29-49. 


* Dan.  6 : 10. 


2/0  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

dency  toward  unity  of  faith,  instead  of  toward  a 
divergency. 

In  every  Muhammadan  mosk  there  is  a niche, 
or  “ mihrab,”  in  the  main  wall  of  the  building, 
in  the  direhlion  of  Meccah ; and  toward  that 
niche  every  worshiper  must  turn  before  he  can 
pray.  The  mihrab  indicates  the  qiblah  of 
their  worship.  These  niches  are  to  be  seen 
in  every  “place  of  prayer,”  by  a stream  of  run- 
ning water  (like  that  proseuche  outside  of  the 
city  of  Philippi  where  Paul  met  Lydia  and  her 
companions^):  and  again  in  every  sacred  tomb  of 
a Muhammadan  saint,  or  “welee.” 

At  a wayside  fountain  near  Hebron,  I observed 
such  a place  of  prayer.  The  mihrab  was  in  a 
low  wall  just  eastward  of  the  fountain  ; and  a 
Muhammadan  was  devoutly  praying  toward  his 
Holy  City  as  our  party  rode  past  him,  and  as 
others  were  noisily  chattering  while  they  stopped 
to  take  water  for  themselves  and  their  horses, 
but  a few  feet  from  him,  as  he  prayed.  Another 
such  mihrab,  marking  a place  of  prayer,  I noticed 
at  a fountain  on  the  way  to  the  summit  of  Mt. 
Gerizim,  not  far  from  the  probable  standing- 


^ Acts  i6  : 14. 


Prayers  and  Praying  in  the  East. 


271 


place  of  Jotham  as  he  spoke  his  portentous  par- 
able to  the  men  of  Shechem.^ 

It  was  toward  the  mihrab  in  a welee’s  tomb  at 
Castle  Nakhl  (probably  the  site  of  “ El-Paran 
which  is  upon  the  wilderness  ” in  the  days  of 
Kedor-la’omer),^  that  a young  bridegroom  came 
at  midnight,  with  a noisy  procession,  to  offer  his 
prayers  before  going  to  claim  his  bride, — as  I have 
elsewhere  described  the  scene.  And  I saw  a 
similar  mihrab  in  the  imposing  welee’s  tomb  on 
that  summit  of  the  hill  above  the  village  of 
Nazareth  whence  the  young  Jesus  must  often 
have  looked  out  upon  the  lovely  view  which 
stretches  away  thence  on  every  side. 

In  the  absence  of  a designating  mihrab,  a 
Muhammadan  must  have  a good  knowledge  of 
geography,  and  of  his  compass  bearings,  to  en- 
able him  to  direbt  his  prayers  aright.  I traveled 
for  some  time  with  a merchant  from  Bagdad,  the 
famous  city  of  the  Khaleefs,  all  redolent  with 
the  memories  of  the  “Arabian  Nights.”  When 
he  started  out  from  his  home  on  the  Tigris, 
he  prayed  southwesterly.  Gradually  he  swept 
around  in  his  travels  and  in  his  devotions,  until 


Gudg.  9 : 7-21. 


^ Gen.  14  ; 1-17. 


272  Studies  in  Oriejital  Social  Life. 

he  had  completed  more  than  half  of  a circle  ; 
and  when  last  I saw  him  at  his  evening  prayers, 
on  the  deck  of  a steamer  in  quarantine  at  Port 
Said,  in  Egypt,  he  was  praying  southeasterly. 

Praying  toward  a holy  place  is  a reminder  of 
that  which  makes  that  place  holy  ; and  if  a wor- 
shiper can  be  in  that  place,  instead  of  merely 
praying  toward  it,  he  feels  that  the  value  of  his 
prayers  is  manifolded.  Thus  a Muhammadan 
feels  that  a prayer  at  Meccah  counts  for  seventy 
thousand  prayers  away  from  there ; and  he  calls 
the  Ka'bah  the  “Ear  of  God,”  into  which  his 
petitions  can  be  spoken  diredlly.  And  to  Mu- 
hammadan as  well  as  to  Jew,  Jerusalem  also  is  a 
holy  place  for  prayer. 

It  is  a touching  sight  to  see  the  Jews,  in  Jeru- 
salem, on  a Friday  afternoon,  assembled  just 
eastward  of  the  ruined  walls  of  their  ancient 
temple,  praying  toward  the  place  where  Jehovah’s 
name  was  set.  Old  and  young,  men  and  women 
and  children,  gather  there,  and  read  anew  in  the 
Scriptures  the  prophecies  of  the  desolation  of 
the  Holy  City,  and  of  its  restoration.  Their 
sorrow  is  real,  and  their  devotion  is  unfeigned. 
While  some  sit  at  a little  distance  from  the  mas- 


Prayers  and  Praying  in  the  East.  273 

sive  ruins,  with  their  bowed  heads  toward  the 
former  sancluary,  others  stand  with  their  heads 
pressed  reverently  against  the  sacred  stones,  and 
with  tears  and  sobs  they  cry  : 

“ O God,  the  heathen  are  come  into  thine  inheritance ; 

Thy  holy  temple  have  they  defiled  ; 

They  have  laid  Jerusalem  on  heaps.  . . . 

We  are  become  a reproach  to  our  neighbors, 

A scorn  and  derision  to  them  that  are  round  about  us.  . . . 
Help  us,  O God  of  our  salvation,  for  the  glory  of  thy  name  : 
And  deliver  us,  and  purge  away  our  sins,  for  thy  name’s 
sake.”  * 

And  again  : 

“ Do  good  in  thy  good  pleasure  unto  Zion ; 

Build  thou  the  walls  of  Jerusalem.”  * 

Yet  there  was  one  thing  more  impressive  to 
me  personally,  in  the  biblical  associations  of 
prayer  in  the  East,  than  even  this  touching  scene 
at  the  Jews’  wailing-place  in  Jerusalem.  My 
camping-ground  near  the  Holy  City  was  on  the 
westerly  slope  of  the  Mount  of  Olives,  under  the 
very  walls  of  the  Chapel  of  the  Ascension. 
Gethsemane  was  just  below  me.  The  valley  of 
the  brook  Kidron  was  yet  lower  down.  Beyond 
was  the  Holy  City,  with  the  site  of  the  temple 

’ Psa.  79  : i,  4,  9.  ’ Psa.  51  ; 18. 

18 


274 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


in  full  view.  At  my  left  swept  the  road  from 
Bethany,  around  the  southern  brow  of  the  moun- 
tain, down  which  our  Lord  had  passed  in  his  one 
triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem,  when  “ he  saw 
the  city  and  wej)t  over  it,  ^ in  loving  tenderness. 

As  I stood  before  my  tent  on  the  evening  of 
my  arrival  there,  all  these  scenes  were  before  me 
in  strange  freshness.  Many  a night  had  Jesus 
come  out  into  the  Mount  of  Olives,  “as  his  cus- 
tom was,”'^  to  continue  there  in  prayer  until  his 
head  was  “filled  with  dew,”  and  his  “locks  with 
the  drops  of  the  night.” ^ It  was  from  near  this 
very  mountain  that  Jesus  had  ascended  to  his 
Father;  and  the  promise  of  his  return  is,  that 
“his  feet  shall  stand  in  that  day  upon  the  mount 
of  Olives  which  is  before  Jerusalem  on  the  east.”'* 
The  praying  Saviour  seemed  very  near  and  very 
real  that  night.  Yet  in  spite  of  all  this,  in  my 
weariness,  I went  to  my  tent  and  slept.  While  it 
was  yet  dark,  as  it  began  to  dawn  toward  the 
day,  I was  awakened  out  of  my  sleep  by  the  sud- 
den cry  : “ Rise  and  pray.  Prayer  is  better  than 
sleep.  Prayer  is  better  than  sleep.”  It  Avas 

* Luke  19:41.  Luke  4 : 16 ; 22  : 39  ; Mark  10  : i. 

*Song  of  Songs  5 : 2.  *Zech.  14  : 4. 


Prayc7's  and  Praying  in  the  East. 


275 


almost  as  if  the  very  Saviour  himself  had  called 
anew  to  his  sluggish  disciples  : “Why  sleep  ye? 
Rise  and  pray,  that  ye  enter  not  into  tempta- 
tion;”' and  the  impulse  was  to  render  to  him  his 
own  graciously  suggested  excuse:  “The  spirit 
indeed  is  willing,  but  the  flesh  is  weak.”^ 

But  that  startling  call  which  had  awakened 
me  \vas  the  cry  of  the  mu’azzin  from  the  minaret 
of  the  Muhammadan  mosk  under  the  very  walls 
of  which  our  tent  was  pitched.  Century  after 
century  that  cry  has  gone  up  there  in  the  gray 
of  every  morning,  as  if  it  were  the  echo  of  our 
Saviour’s  call  to  his  disciples  to  “rise  and  pray.” 
And  hard  by  that  Muhammadan  mosk  is  a 
Christian  chapel,  containing  the  Lord’s  Prayer 
engraven  on  its  inner  walls  in  a score  and  a half 

o 

of  languages.  Thus  the  Mount  of  Olives  con- 
tinues to  be  a place  of  prayer  for  all  peoples  ; 
although  neither  it,  nor  the  sacred  hill  which  it 
overlooks  westerly,  is  now  the  place  of  prayer  for 
all  the  nations.^ 

And  this  is  the  comfort  of  the  Christian  be- 
liever, as  he  rejoices  in  his  larger  privilege  of 

' See  Matt.  26  : 45,  46;  Mark  14  : 41  ; Luke  22  ; 46. 

^See  Matt.  26:41.  ^ Isa.  56:7;  Mark  11:17. 


276  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

simple,  untrammeled  and  direcl  prayer  to  God, 
an)avhere  and ever}avhere.  "The  hour  cometh,” 
said  Jesus,  “when  neither  in  this  mountain,  nor 
in  Jerusalem,  shall  ye  worship  the  Father.  . . . 
But  the  hour  cometh,  and  now  is,  when  the  true 
worshipers  shall  worship  the  Father  in  spirit  and 
truth  : for  such  doth  the  Father  seek  to  be  his 
worshipers.”  ^ 

* John  4:21,  23. 


FOOD  IN  THE  DESERT. 


One  of  the  questions  which  has  perplexed  Bible 
students  in  connexion  with  the  story  of  the  desert 
life  of  the  Israelites,  is  the  possibility  of  so  great  a 
multitude  finding  sustenance  in  that  sterile  region. 
Even  the  recorded  miracle  of  the  manna  has  not 
been  sufficient  to  bring  the  story  within  the  range 
of  human  probability  in  the  minds  of  many;  and 
returned  travelers  from  the  Arabian  desert  are 
sure  to  be  asked  : “Did  you  see  anything  that 
went  to  show  the  possibility  of  support  in  the 

desert  for  such  a people  as  the  Israelites  ? ” 

277 


278  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

One  popular  method  of  accounting  for  the  story 
as  it  stands,  is  by  supposing  that  at  that  time 
the  now  desert  region  in  question  was  far  better 
wooded  and  watered  ; and  the  changes  in  this 
direction  which  have  taken  place  in  Palestine 
are  pointed  to  in  corroboration  of  this  view.  But 
whatever  is  the  present  correspondence  of  lower 
Palestine  and  the  desert  of  Sinai,  it  is  plain  that 
in  Old  Testament  times  Palestine  was  called  “a 
good  land,  a land  of  brooks  of  water,  of  foun- 
tains and  depths,  springing  forth  in  valleys  and 
hills  ; a land  of  wheat  and  barley,  and  vines 
and  fig  trees  and  pomegranates  ; a land  of  oil 
olives  and  honey  ; ” ^ while  the  desert  was  called 
a “ orreat  and  terrible  wilderness,  wherein  were 

o 

fiery  serpents  and  scorpions,  and  thirsty  ground 
where  was  no  water  ; ” ^ and  even  at  one  of 
its  richer  oases  it  was  said  : “ It  is  no  place  of 
seed,  or  of  figs,  or  of  vines,  or  of  pomegranates  ; 
neither  is  there  any  water  to  drink.”  ^ 

There  were  doubtless  more  trees,  in  certain 
districts  of  the  Sinaitic  peninsula,  a few  centuries 
ago,  than  now  ; but  everything  would  go  to  show 
that  the  main  features  of  that  peninsula  stand  to- 

* Deut.  8:7,8.  ^ Deut.  8:15.  ® Num.  20 : 5. 


Food  in  the  Desert. 


279 

clay  as  they  have  stood  for  forty  centuries,  and 
that  the  differences  between  earlier  ages  and  now 
in  the  productiveness  of  any  portion  of  its  land 
are  only  such  as  the  existence  or  the  lack  of  cul- 
tivation would  produce.  From  all  that  would 
appear  in  crossing  that  desert,  it  would  be  as 
easy  for  such  a multitude  to  be  sustained  there 
now  as  at  any  former  period,  and  the  need  of  a 
miraculous  supplement  to  the  ordinary  provisions 
of  nature  would  be  as  imperative.  Moreover, 
there  is  far  less  difficulty  in  sustaining  such  a 
people  in  such  a region,  and  the  amount  of  aid 
by  miracle  requisite  to  their  full  supply  of  food 
and  drink  is  smaller,  than  would  be  supposed  by 
one  unfamiliar  with  desert  life  and  desert  living. 

If  you  suppose  that  a Bed'wy  requires  the  food 
of  an  ordinary  American  or  English  able-bodied 
man,  you  may  well  wonder  how  he  gets  it  on  the 
desert.  But  when  you  understand  how  little  it 
takes  to  keep  a Bed'wy  alive,  you  will  have  no 
wonder  that  he  can  live,  on  the  desert  or  any- 
where, in  time  of  plenty  or  of  famine.  And  if  you 
think  that  the  standard  of  home  living  is  the  or- 
dinary standard  of  pioneer  life  or  campaigning, 
vou  will  lose  sight  of  the  vast  difference,  shown 


2 8o  S/u(/ics  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

in  the  Bible  story,  between  the  Israelites  by  the 
flesh-pots  of  Egypt,  and  the  Israelites  murmuring 
over  their  privations  in  the  wilderness. 

W hy,  what  do  you  suppose  was  the  ordinary 
daily  food  of  one  of  our  Bed'ween  attendants  as 
we  crossed  the  desert?  In  the  first  place,  these 
men  commonly  walked  all  day  long  without  a 
particle  of  food.  W hen  evening  came,  and  they 
rested,  they  had  their  one  frugal  meal  of  the  day. 
That  meal  consisted  of  one  of  two  things,  as  I will 
show  you. 

Most  of  them  carried  a little  bag  or  package 
of  barley  flour.  Three  or  four  of  them  would 
join  together  in  a “mess,”  each  putting  a double- 
handful or  so  of  the  flour  into  the  common  stock. 
This  flour  one  of  them  would  stir  up  into  a paste, 
with  water  and  a little  salt.  A rude  oven  would 
be  made  by  digging  a hole  in  the  chalky  desert 
bottom,  and  in  this  a fire  would  be  lighted,  of 
gathered  sticks  and  vines  and  camel  dung. 
When  the  chalky  sides  and  bottom  of  the  oven 
were  well  heated,  the  fire  would  be  drawn  out, 
and  the  paste,  flattened  out  into  a large,  thin 
cake,  would  be  spread  upon  them  ; the  fire  would 
be  drawn  back  upon  the  cake,  and  left  there  until 


Food  in  the  Desert. 


281 


the  cake,  or,  rather,  sheet  of  bookbinders’  paste, 
as  it  seemed,  was  thoroughly  toughened  and 
dried.  Then  the  cake  was  taken  out,  the  ashes 
partially  pounded  from  it  by  a stick,  and  partially 
wiped  from  it  by  the  skirts  of  the  Arab’s  single 
garment,  and  it  was  divided  among  its  owners. 
Each  man  ate  his  share  of  this  that  evening,  un- 
less, as  in  some  cases,  he  kept  a portion  until  the 
morning,  to  chew  upon  as  he  journeyed.  This 
bit  of  dried  paste,  with  a moderate  supply  of 
water,  was  all  the  man’s  food  for  the  twenty-four 
hours,  as  he  journeyed  over  the  desert. 

Nor  is  it  an  Arab  alone  who  can  live  on  such 
food  as  this.  The  Rev.  F.  W.  Holland  walked 
from  Wady  Mukatteb  to  Suez,  “ a distance  of 
some  one  hundred  and  ten  miles,”  “with  no  other 
provision  than  a little  bag  of  flour  ; ” and  that 
journey  covered  more  than  the  entire  range  of  the 
Israelites’  pilgrimage,  from  their  crossing  of  the 
Red  Sea  until  the  manna  began  to  fall  for  them. 

Others,  again,  of  our  Bed'ween  attendants, 
carried  a small  sack — a mere  hand-bag  slung  at 
the  side  like  a haversack — of  Egyptian  corn, 
much  like  our  Indian  corn,  or  maize.  At  the 
close  of  the  day  they  roasted  a double- handful 


282  Studies  ill  Oriental  Social  Life. 

of  that  corn  over  the  fire,  in  a little  sheet-metal 
pan,  somewhat  as  we  would  roast  coffee,  and  then 
they  chewed  the  parched  corn  ^ as  their  rations 
for  the  day.  It  would  be  an  encouragement  to  a 
Yankee  landlord  to  start  a boarding-house  with 
such  eaters  as  that  for  steady  customers  ! Vet 
those  men  were  able-bodied,  crossing  the  desert 
on  foot,  under  the  hot  sun,  and  over  the  burning 
flints,  with  that  for  their  accustomed  daily  fare. 
No  unreasonable  miracle  would  be  called  for  to 
supply  that  amount  of  food  per  man  to  a multi- 
tude— would  there  ? 

General  Marcy  of  the  United  States  Army,  in 
his  “ Prairie  Traveler  ” gives  it  as  his  opinion, 
based  on  an  extensive  experience  in  border-life 
campaigning,  that  a man  can  get  more  helpful 
nourishment  in  desert  living  out  of  parched  In- 
dian corn,  ground  or  pounded  and  mixed  with 
sugar,  than  out  of  any  other  food  of  like  compact- 
ness. The  correctness  of  this  opinion  was  verified, 
to  my  personal  knowledge,  by  more  than  one  of 
our  Union  soldiers  who  escaped  from  Southern 
prisons,  in  our  civil  war,  and  lived  for  weeks  to- 
gether in  the  woods  and  swamps  on  the  \vay  to 

* Lev.  23  : 14 ; Ruth  2:14;  i Sam.  17 : 17  ; 25  : 18 ; 2 Sam.  17  : 28. 


Food  in  the  Desert. 


283 


their  land  of  promise.  The  heaven-sent  manna, 
either  with  or  without  the  parched  corn,  was 
about  as  near  as  could  be  to  the  food  thus  found 
in  modern  times  most  useful  in  desert  living. 
“ The  people  went  about,  and  gathered  it,  and 
ground  it  in  mills,  or  beat  it  in  mortars,  and 
seethed  it  in  pots,  and  made  cakes  of  it.”  ^ “And 
the  taste  of  it  was  like  wafers  made  with  honey.”  ^ 

My  visit  to  the  Convent  of  St.  Catharine,  at 
the  foot  of  Jebel  Moosa,  was  during  the  season 
of  Lent.  Of  course  the  monks  were  then  on  fast- 
ing fare.  They  ate  nothing  until  the  close  of 
the  day.  As  they  passed  out  from  the  vesper 
service  in  the  convent  chapel,  they  received 
their  scanty  portion  of  daily  food.  A monk  stood 
outside  the  doorway  with  a large  wooden  bowl 
of  boiled  beans  or  lentils,  and  to  each  monk  he 
gave  in  turn  a ladleful  of  the  porridge,  pouring 
it  into  the  outreached  hands  of  the  passer. 

Among  the  dependants  of  this  convent  are  the 
Jebeleeyeh,  said  to  be  descended  from  Egyptian 
andWallachian  slaves  given  to  the  convent  by  the 
emperor  Justinian.  The  more  helpless  of  these 
serfs  are  fed  from  the  convent,  and  their  food 


' Num.  11:8. 


^ Exod.  16:31. 


284  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

consists  of  coarse  black  bread  made  in  hard  balls 
from  unbolted  barley  meal.  One  ball  of  this 
bread,  about  the  size  of  a small  orange,  is  given 
to  a beggar  for  a two  days’  supply.  I obtained 
a specimen  ball  of  this  bread,  intending  to  use  it 
as  a paper-weight,  but  it  was  accidentally  thrown 
away  a few  days  later,  being  mistaken  by  me  for 
a bit  of  granite.  Then  it  was  that  I realized 
how  a man  might  give  to  his  son  a stone  when 
he  asked  for  bread.^ 

But  even  the  parched  corn  or  the  barley  flour 
is  not  an  absolute  necessity  in  the  desert.  There 
are  families  which  live  entirely  on  the  milk  of 
their  sheep  or  goats  or  camels.  For  weeks  to- 
gether men  have  lived  on  the  milk  of  their  drom- 
edaries as  both  food  and  drink,  and  this  while 
the  dromedaries  had  no  other  food  than  the 
scanty  herbage  of  the  desert  soil.  Professor 
Palmer  tells  of  “ a well-authenticated  case  of  an 
Arab  in  the  north  of  Syria,  who  for  three  years 
had  not  tasted  either  water  or  solid  food,”  living 
on  milk  alone.  And  a Bed'wy  of  the  desert  could 
get  along  on  as  little  as  any  Syrian  Arab. 

The  Bed'ween  seem  to  live  on  crumbs.  As  we 


’ Matt.  7 : 9. 


Food  in  the  Desert. 


285 

sat  at  our  meals,  our  Arab  attendants  would 
watch  us  at  a distance,  and  when  we  had  left  the 
table  every  scrap  remaining  on  it  was  greedily 
devoured  by  them.  They  would  literally  eat 
every  egg-shell,  every  chicken  bone,  every  potato 
skin  and  bread  crust  discarded  by  us.  This  fa6l 
gave  a new  meaning  to  the  Bible  reference  to 
the  poor  being  fed  with  the  crumbs  that  fell  from 
the  table  of  the  rich.^ 

Meat  is  not  an  ordinary  article  of  food  in  the 
desert.  The  killing  of  an  animal  is  called  “sac- 
rificing,”— its  blood,  as  its  “ life,”  being  poured  out 
on  the  ground  as  an  offering  to  the  Author  of 
life,  and  its  flesh  being  eaten,  as  a sacrament  of 
communion  with  God,  and  with  those  who  are 
fellow-partakers  of  it.^  This  “sacrificing”  is  com- 
mon as  an  adl  of  hospitality,  when  a lamb  or 
a kid  is  sacrificed  in  order  that  the  guest  may 
share  its  meat.  And  it  is  an  accompaniment  of 
any  event  of  gladness,  like  a wedding,  or  a cir- 
cumcision, or  the  observance  of  a festival.  But 
if  flesh  is  desired,  it  is  available  in  the  desert 
wadies,  in  the  goats,  or  the  sheep,  or  the  young 

‘Luke  16  : 21  ; Matt.  15  : 27  ; Mark  7 : 28. 

^ See  Gen.  18  : 1-8 ; Exod.  29  : 11,  12  ; Lev.  4 : 7,  18,  25,  30,  34 ; 8 : 
15  ; 9:9;  17  : 13:  24:9- 


286 


Stiidies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

dromedaries.  And  there  is  wild  game  like  the 
gazelle,  or  the  ibe.x,  or  the  quail.  I saw  quanti- 
ties of  quail  in  the  vicinity  of  the  track  of  the 
Israelities  in  the  desert  of  Sinai. ^ An  Arab 
would  not  be  above  eating  broiled  quail,  even 
without  toast,  if  he  were  in  danger  of  starvation. 

In  connection  with  the  Bible  narrative  of  the 
Israelites  gorging  themselves  with  quails,  when 
they  had  the  opportunity,  so  that  a fearful  pesti- 
lence came  amongf  them,^  it  is  to  be  noted  that 
while  the  Arabs  of  the  desert  ordinarily  live  on 
very  scanty  fare,  they  are  ready  to  eat  voraciously 
and  ravenously  when  extra  food  is  before  them. 
At  sacrifices  and  feasts,  when  flesh  is  abundant, 
they  seem  to  eat  without  limit.  It  is  not  an  un- 
common thing  for  two  Arabs  to  devour  an  entire 
sheep  at  a sitting  on  such  an  occasion. 

That  story  of  the  Israelites  at  Kibroth-hattaaveh 
seems  perfectly  natural  to  one  familiar  with  desert 
ways.  The  scanty-fed  Hebrews  were  hungry ; 
“and  the  mixed  multitude  that  was  among  them 
fell  a lustinof:  and  the  children  of  Israel  also 
wept  again,  and  said.  Who  shall  give  us  flesh  to 
eat?  . . . And  there  went  forth  a wind  from  the 


* E.xod.  i6  : 13  : Xum.  11:31. 


^ Num.  1 1 : 31-34. 


Food  in  the  Desert. 


287 

Lord,  and  brought  quails  from  the  sea,  and  let 
them  fall  by  the  camp.  . . . And  the  people  rose 
up  all  that  day,  and  all  the  night,  and  all  the 
next  day,  and  gathered  the  quails.”^  Then  the 
silly  Orientals  gorged  themselves  with  quail 
meat;  and  “while  the  flesh  was  yet  between 
their  teeth,  ere  it  was  chewed,  the  anger  of 
the  Lord  was  kindled  against  the  people,  and 
the  Lord  smote  the  people  with  a very  great 
plague.”'^  And  so  the  record  stands  that  God 
“gave  them  their  request,  but  sent  leanness  into 
their  soul.”  ^ 

As  we  journeyed  through  the  desert  our  drago- 
man was  accustomed  to  invite  Shaykh  Moosa  to 
eat  with  him,  out  of  his  capacious  dish  filled  with 
food  prepared  in  Arab  style,  while  the  attendants 
of  the  shaykh  must  be  content  with  their  ordinary 
desert  food.  When  we  camped  over  Sunday  in 
the  vicinity  of  Shaykh  Moosa’s  home,  he  left  us 
for  a brief  visit  to  his  family,  and  one  “ Ibra- 
heem  ” was  installed  in  his  place  for  the  time 
being.  This  entitled  Ibraheem,  by  courtesy,  to 
Moosa’s  place  in  the  dragoman’s  mess,  and  he 
fully  appreciated  the  honor  and  the  opportunity. 

* Num.  1 1 : 4,  31,  32.  ^ Num.  1 1 : 33.  ^Psa.  106:15 


2 88  Studies  in  Oydental  Social  Life. 

He  seemed  to  feel  that  he  must  eat  enough  in 
those  two  days  to  give  him  strength  for  fortyd 

At  his  first  evening^  meal  out  of  the  draeo- 
man’s  dish,  Ibraheem  was  the  center  of  admira- 
tion for  his  capacity  for  food.  The  dragoman 
came  to  my  tent  to  ask  my  attention  to  the  man. 
As  we  stood  back  in  the  shadow,  and  by  the  fire- 
light watched  the  party  over  the  well-filled  dish, 
we  saw  Ibraheem  stretch  out  all  his  fingers  for 
a clutch  at  the  savory  mess,  and  then  open  his 
mouth  to  the  utmost  in  order  to  throw  in  the 
handful ; and  so  again  and  again  until  the  last 
morsel  was  gone  from  the  dish.  “Just  see  him!” 
said  the  enthusiastic  dragoman.  “What  an  ap- 
petite God  has  given  him  ! God  give  us  all  such 
an  appetite  ! ” 

My  experience  and  observation  in  the  desert, 
as  well  as  my  experience  in  army  campaigning 
and  as  a prisoner  of  war,  tended  to  the  convidlion 
that  as  a rule  we  take  far  more  food  than  is  neces- 
sary, or  than  is  best  for  us.  If  we  merely  ate 
to  live,  instead  of  living  to  eat,  it  would  require 
less  for  our  support,  and  there  would  be  less  of  a 
tax  on  our  vital  forces  for  the  work  of  digestion. 

1 1 Kings  19  ; 8. 


Food  in  the  Desert. 


289 

But  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  in  considering 
the  case  of  the  Israelites,  that  they  went  out 
from  Egypt  as  an  entire  people,  carrying  more 
or  less  of  supplies  with  them.  Now  a word  as 
to  caravan  possibilities  in  the  desert.  When 
I crossed  the  Sinaitic  desert  with  two  young 
companions,  I and  my  comrades  did  not  live 
on  parched  corn,  barley  meal,  black  bread,  or 
dromedaries’  milk.  On  the  contrary,  we  fared 
“sumptuously  every  day.”  ^ We  had  comfort- 
able tents,  good  beds,  and  easy  chairs.  After 
each  day’s  journeying,  we  found  our  tents  ready 
for  us,  and  a good  dinner  to  be  served  at  our 
call.  Our  table  service  was  of  French  china- 
ware,  with  silver-plated  forks  and  spoons  and 
caster.  We  had  a good  hot  soup  to  begin  with. 
This  was  followed  by  a curry  of  chicken  and  rice, 
or  potted  pigeons  ; a joint  of  roast  lamb  or 
boiled  mutton  ; from  two  to  four  kinds  of  vege- 
tables, and  a dish  of  macaroni ; a plum  pudding 
or  a baked  custard  or  preserved  apricots,  cheese 
and  milk-biscuit,  figs  and  dates,  and  Egyptian 
coffee. 

In  the  early  morning  we  had  a breakfast  of 
* Luke  16 : 19. 

19 


2QO  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

bread  and  butter  and  coffee,  and  boiled  eggs  or 
an  omelet,  and  orange  marmalade,  also  cold  meat 
or  a mutton  chop,  if  we  desired  it.  Then  our 
tents  and  their  furniture,  and  our  cooking-uten- 
sils, and  the  contents  of  our  larder,  were  all 
started  off  on  camels  ahead  of  us,  to  be  ready 
for  our  new  needs  in  a new  resting-place  at  the 
close  of  the  day.  Our  immediate  passenger  party 
moved  along  more  leisurely  on  the  dromedaries. 
Halting  at  noon  for  a lunch,  we  had  the  shade 
of  a great  rock,^  or  of  a light  shelter  tent,  to 
shield  us  from  the  sun’s  glare  ; and  we  had  a 
tolerable  lunch  of  cold  chicken  or  lamb,  some 
hard-boiled  eggs,  milk-biscuit,  figs  and  dates  and 
oranges,  cheese,  and  cold  tea  with  a touch  of 
lemon-juice  in  it. 

The  table  privations  of  our  desert  life  were 
by  no  means  the  heaviest  tax  on  our  endurance. 
We  carried  live  chickens  and  pigeons  with  us, 
in  coops  swung  at  the  camels’  sides,  and  we 
drove  along  sheep  and  lambs,  to  kill  as  we  had 
need  of  them.  And  at  several  points  we  made 
fresh  purchases  from  Bed'ween  or  from  the  fella- 
heen Arabs,  to  replenish  our  stores. 


See  Isa.  32  : 2. 


Food  in  the  Desert. 


291 

It  may  be  said  that  our  party  was  a small  one, 
and  that  supplies  for  us  would  be  possible  where 
nothinof  of  the  kind  could  be  looked  for  to  an  ex- 
tent  commensurate  with  the  needs  of  the  Israel- 
ites. True  ; but  there  is  one  caravan  of  five 
thousand  persons  or  more,  which  crosses  that 
desert  from  west  to  east  and  back  again  every 
year,  on  the  Meccah  pilgrimage,  and  those  per- 
sons are  cared  for  without  serious  difficulty.  It 
is  very  evident  from  the  Bible  record  that  the 
Israelites  moved  with  large  household  and  other 
supplies.  They  had  their  flocks  and  herds,  their 
material  and  utensils  for  metal-working  and  weav- 
ing, and  embroidery.  It  would  be  unreasonable 
to  look  upon  them  as  wholly  dependent  upon  the 
manna  on  the  one  hand,  or  the  mere  natural 
growth  of  the  desert  on  the  other. 

One  thing  is  essential  to  an  understanding  of 
the  Bible  story  of  the  Hebrew  wanderings,  and 
that  is  that  the  aclual  caravan  march  of  the  host 
in  the  desert  was  in  all  but  a few  days  or  weeks 
at  the  most.  The  resting  at  Elim,  and  again  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Sinai,  was  in  a region  which 
to-day,  as  then,  is  well  watered  and  compara- 
tively fertile.  And  when  the  boundary  of  the 


292 


Studies  in  Oidental  Social  Life. 


Xegeb  was  reached  at  Kadesh-barnea,  and  the 
people  were  turned  back  for  a generation  of  des- 
ert life  because  of  their  lack  of  faith-filled  obedi- 
ence,' there  is  every  reason  to  suppose  that  they 
were  not  set  at  marching  up  and  down,  and  back 
and  forth,  in  solemn  array,  for  thirty-eight  years 
and  a half,  as  some  of  the  uninspired  commenta- 
ries and  maps  would  indicate,  but  were  simply 
left  to  live  as  the  Arabs  of  that  region  live  to-day 
— sowing  and  reaping  their  barley  in  the  wadies 
that  stretch  away  from  the  plains  of  ’Ayn  Oadis 
southward  and  westward,  and  tending  their  flocks 
in  the  mountain  passes  on  every  side.  Kadesh 
itself  was  probably,  in  a certain  sense,  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Israelites  during  all  this  period, 
for  they  are  left  there  in  the  Bible  story  when  the 
sentence  of  wandering  is  passed  upon  them,  and 
there  they  are  found  when  again  they  take  up 
their  formal  march  to  Canaan.^ 

Let  me  not  be  misunderstood  as  questioning 
the  truth  or  the  need  of  the  miraculous  supply  of 
the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness.  I only  claim 
that  there  is  no  such  unreasonableness  as  many 
have  been  inclined  to  see,  in  the  story  of  such  a 


‘ Num.  U : 33.  34- 


^ Xum.  20  : I. 


Food  in  the  Desert. 


293 


host  as  that  of  Israel  sustained  in  the  desert,  with 
the  ordinary  means  and  possibilities  of  living 
there,  and  the  added  supernatural  supply  of 
manna  as  material  for  bread,  or  to  be  used  with 
bread,  day  by  day,  and  of  water  on  occasions  of 
special  drought,  as  at  Rephidim^  and  Kadesh.^ 
Wdth  so  vast  a multitude,  including  many  women 
and  children,  and  with  all  the  vicissitudes  of  sea- 
sons of  drought  and  scarcity,  many  of  the  Israel- 
ites would  have  suffered  sorely,  in  those  long 
years  of  desert  life,  but  for  God’s  special  watch 
and  care  of  them.  That  watch  and  care  were 
never  wanting. 

Hence  it  was  that  Moses  could  say  to  his  peo- 
ple, at  the  close  of  their  exile;  “The  Lord  thy 
God  hath  blessed  thee  in  all  the  work  of  thy 
hand : he  hath  known  thy  walking  through  this 
great  wilderness  : these  forty  years  the  Lord  thy 
God  hath  been  with  thee ; thou  hast  lacked 
nothing.”  ^ “ He  humbled  thee,  and  suffered  thee 
to  hunger,  and  fed  thee  with  manna,  which  thou 
knewest  not,  neither  did  thy  fathers  know  ; that 
he  might  make  thee  know  that  man  doth  not  live 
by  bread  only  [natural  supplies  are  not  enough 


•Exod.  17  : 1-6. 


^Num.  20  : i-i  I. 


® Deut.  2 : 7. 


294  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

for  a man,  in  the  desert  or  out  of  it],  but  by  every 
thing  that  proceedeth  out  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Lord  doth  man  live  [a  promise  of  God  is  a better 
assurance  of  a morning  meal  than  a bag  of  flour 
in  your  tent,  or  a live  chicken  in  the  hands  of 
your  cook].  Thy  raiment  waxed  not  old  upon 

thee,  neither  did  thy  foot  swell,  these  forty 
> > 1 

years. 

* Deut.  8 : 3,  4. 


CALLS  FOR  HEALL\G  IN  THE  EAST. 


It  requires  but  a cursory  view  of  the  East  to 
give  a new  understanding  of  the  Bible  pictures 
of  a multitude  of  halt  and  maimed  and  blind  and 
diseased,  needing  cure  ; and  of  the  sure  welcome 
accorded  to  one  coming  among  them  with  a 
proffer  of  healing.  The  pictures  of  long  ago  are 
the  realities  of  to-day. 

My  earliest  walk  in  the  Arab  quarter  of  Alex- 
andria, and  in  the  streets  about  it,  showed  me,  in 
one  hour,  more  blind  beggars ; more  children  with 

sore  or  sightless  eyes — sore  eyes  fairly  covered 

295 


296  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

with  the  ever-present  sluggish  flies  of  the  East, 
which  no  one  thought  of  brushing  away  ; more 
helpless  cripples,  and  half-naked  creatures  “full 
of  sores,”  ^ crouching  in  misery  at  other  men’s 
gates, — than  I had  seen  in  all  my  life  before. 
And  from  that  beginning,  I was  hardly  ever 
away  from  the  sight  of  disease  in  some  of  its 
more  hopeless  aspects  and  its  more  repulsive 
forms,  until  Egypt  was  fairly  behind  me,  and  the 
purer  air  of  the  desert  gave  freedom  from  the 
filth  and  the  sicknesses  of  that  degraded  and 
sin-cursed  people. 

At  Cairo,  the  blind  or  the  sick  or  the  crippled 
sat  at  every  street  corner,  and  on  every  square  ; 
were  laid  at  every  mosk  door;  and  were  cry- 
ing out  for  help  or  for  an  alms  before  every 
bazaar.  Again  they  were  found  crouching  under 
the  Pyramids  at  Gheezeh  and  at  Saqqarah,  and 
along  the  Nile  banks  on  either  hand.  Ever}' 
mud  village  swarmed  with  them,  as  with  fleas, 
until  it  seemed  as  if  Egypt  itself  were  a vast 
lazar-house,  and  “all  manner  of  disease  and  all 
manner  of  sickness  ” ^ were  there,  without  receiv- 
ing help  or  attention. 

^ Matt.  4 : 23. 


’ Luke  16  : 20. 


Calls  for  Healing  in  the  East. 


297 


One  of  my  companions,  a medical  student, 
observed  the  varying  phases  of  disease  with 
peculiar  interest ; and  it  was  his  testimony,  when 
we  left  Egypt  for  Arabia,  that  more  than  half 
of  all  the  people  whom  we  had  met  in  that  land 
of  darkness  were  blind  or  sore-eyed,  or  in  some 
way  obviously  diseased.  It  was  with  a new 
realization  of  its  original  force  and  meaning  that 
we  read,  on  our  first  Sunday  in  the  desert,  at 
Elim,  that  promise  of  God  to  murmuring  Israel 
at  Marah:  “If  thou  wilt  diligently  hearken  to 
the  voice  of  the  Lord  thy  God,  and  wilt  do  that 
which  is  right  in  his  eyes,  and  wilt  give  ear  to 
his  commandments,  and  keep  all  his  statutes,  I 
will  put  none  of  the  diseases  upon  thee,  which  I 
have  put  upon  the  Egyptians  : for  I am  the  Lord 
that  healeth  thee.”  ^ 

And  again,  we  saw  the  force  of  the  threat  of 
Moses,  in  case  Israel  should  turn  from  the  service 
of  the  Lord:  “Then  the  Lord  will  make  thy 
plagues  wonderful,  and  the  plagues  of  thy  seed, 
even  great  plagues,  and  of  long  continuance,  and 
sore  sicknesses,  and  of  long  continuance.  And 
he  will  bring  upon  thee  again  all  the  diseases  of 

’ Exod.  I 5 : 26. 


298  Studies  in  Oidental  Social  Life. 

Egypt,  which  thou  wast  afraid  of ; and  they  shall 
cleave  unto  thee.”  ^ And  that  this  threat  has 
been  made  good,  the  condition  of  things  in  Pal- 
estine eighteen  centuries  ago,  and  to-day,  gives 
evidence. 

Comparatively  little  of  disease  shows  itself 
among  the  Bed'ween  of  the  desert ; but  the  blind 
and  the  crippled  and  the  sick  who  are  there  are 
no  less  pitiable  in  their  need,  nor  are  they  less 
importunate  in  their  calls  for  help,  than  the 
wretched  sufferers  who  meet  one  at  every  turn  in 
Egypt.  Palestine,  however,  now,  as  doubtless 
was  the  case  in  the  days  of  our  Lord,  seems 
fairly  overrun  with  those  afflicded  by  one  form  or 
another  of  bodily  ailment.  Erom  Hebron  to 
Beyrout,  as  our  party  journeyed  northward,  we 
were  scarcely  out  of  sight  of  some  blind,  or 
crippled,  or  leprous  beggar,  if  we  were  in  sight 
of  any  one  at  all.  It  was  during  Holy  Week 
that  we  went  from  Jerusalem  to  Nazareth  ; and 
whatever  beggars  there  were,  were  out  along  the 
roadside  at  that  time,  to  solicit  alms  from  the 
pilgrims  to  the  Holy  City,  at  Passover  season, 
or  Easter.  They  fairly  thronged  the  entrance 


' Deut.  28  : 59,  60. 


Calls  for  Healing  in  the  East. 


299 


ways  to  Jerusalem,  and  the  paths  to  Gethsemane 
and  the  Mount  of  Olives,  squatting  in  the  very 
middle  of  the  road,  stretching  out  their  skinny 
arms,  and  turning  up  their  sightless  eyes,  with 
woful  cries  for  pity  and  bakhsheesh  from  the 
howajji. 

Less  prominence  is  given  to  this  feature  of 
Oriental  life  than  to  many  another,  in  the  reports 
of  travelers  ; but  glimpses  of  the  fabts  in  the 
case  are  not  lacking  in  the  pages  of  books  of 
travel  or  of  analytic  description.  Dr.  Thomson, 
in  his  latest  edition  of  “The  Land  and  the  Book,” 
introduces  his  reader  to  the  people  of  the  land 
as  seen  on  a market-day  at  Jaffa:  “Many  are 
blind,  or  have  some  painful  defect  about  their 
eyes,  and  a few,  sitting  alone  in  the  outskirts, 
must  be  lepers.”  And  of  his  first  sight  of  the 
lepers  near  the  Jaffa  Gate  of  Jerusalem,  he  says: 
“They  held  up  towards  me  their  handless  arms  ; 
unearthly  sounds  gurgled  through  their  throats 
without  palates  — in  a word,  I was  horrified.” 
“ One  meets  these  unfortunate  creatures  in  every 
part  of  the  country,”  he  says  furfher  ; “but  it  was 
only  at  their  village  in  Jerusalem  that  the  horrors 
of  their  hopeless  condition  were  fully  exposed.” 


300 


Studies  ill  Oriental  Social  Life. 


Even  “Mark  Twain, ”'who  certainly  was  not  in- 
clined to  see  likenesses  to  the  Bible  story  where 
none  existed,  in  the  Holy  Land,  makes  mention 
of  the  wide  prevalence  of  repulsive  diseases  in 
the  cities  and  villages  of  Palestine  and  Syria. 
“ Lepers,  cripples,  the  blind,  and  the  idiotic, 
assail  you  on  every  hand,”  he  declares,  in  de- 
scribing Jerusalem.  “To  see  the  numbers  of 
maimed,  malformed,  and  diseased  humanity  that 
throng  the  holy  places  and  obstruct  the  gates, 
one  might  suppose  that  the  ancient  days  had 
come  again,  and  that  the  angel  of  the  Lord  was 
expeeded  to  descend  at  any  moment  to  stir  the 
waters  of  Bethesda.”^  And  of  the  ordinar)^ 
Syrian  village,  as  the  modern  traveler  finds  it,  he 
adds  : “ Linally  you  come  to  several  sore-eyed 
children,  and  children  in  all  stages  of  mutilation 
and  decay  ; and  sitting  humbly  in  the  dust,  and 
all  fringed  with  filthy  rags,  is  a poor  devil  whose 
arms  and  legs  are  gnarled  and  twisted  like  grape- 
vines.” 

As  our  traveling  party  passed  out  the  western 
gate  of  Nablus  — the  site  of  ancient  .Shechem, 
“a  city  of  Samaria”" — a group  of  repulsive 
‘John  5 : 2-9.  *John  4 : 5. 


Calls  for  Healing  m the  East. 


301 


lepers  greeted  us  with  calls  for  help.  They 
showed  various  forms  of  that  terrible  disease  ; 
the  nose,  or  the  lips,  or  a hand,  or  a foot,  eaten 
away  ; the  limbs  distorted  ; and  in  one  case,  at 
least,  there  was  “a  leper  as  white  as  snow.”  ^ 
Wdien  we  were  fairly  in  our  tents,  beyond  the 
city  westward,  those  lepers  came,  fifteen  in  all, 
and  seated  themselves  afar  off  in  a semicircle 
facing  our  tents,  with  one  of  their  number  a 
little  in  advance  of  the  others,  holding  out  a 
dish  for  alms  ; and  as  with  one  voice  they  cried 
aloud  to  us  to  have  pity  on  them,  and  to  give 
them  aid.  This  surely  was  not  unlike  the  days 
of  Jesus  in  that  very  region,  if  not  at  that  identi- 
cal spot:  “And  it  came  to  pass,  as  they  were 
on  the  way  to  Jerusalem,  that  he  was  passing 
through  the  midst  of  Samaria  and  Galilee.  And 
as  he  entered  into  a certain  village,  there  met 
him  ten  men  that  were  lepers,  which  stood  afar 
off : and  they  lifted  up  their  voices,  saying,  Jesus, 
Master,  have  mercy  on  us.”^ 

In  view  of  the  innumerable  cases  of  blindness 
in  the  East,  there  is  only  ludicrousness  in  the 
many  critical  attempts  which  have  been  made  to 

’ Luke  17  : 1 1-13. 


' 2 Kings  5 : 27. 


302 


Studies  m Oriental  Social  Life. 


reconcile  the  several  narratives,  in  the  Synoptical 
Gospels,  of  the  healing  of  blind  men  by  our  Lord, 
on  the  occasion  of  his  last  visit  to  Jericho.  Luke 
says^  that  as  Jesus  went  into  Jericho  a blind 
man  called  on  him  for  mercy,  and  was  cured. 
Mark  says^  that  a blind  man,  known  as  Barti- 
meus,  called  out  and  was  cured,  as  Jesus  was  leav- 
ing Jericho.  Matthew  says^  that  as  Jesus  departed 
from  Jericho  two  blind  men  sitting  by  the  wayside 
called  for  mercy,  and  were  cured.  And  what  a 
fuss  has  been  made  over  these  several  statements, 
as  if  the  very  integrity  of  the  Gospel  revelation 
were  involved  in  their  harmonizing  ! 

Was  there  one  blind  man,  or  were  there  two, 
or  could  there  have  been  three,  at  the  same  time, 
near  Jericho?  Was  it  when  he  went  into,  or  when 
he  came  out  from,  the  city,  that  Jesus  heard  the 
cry  of  the  one  blind  man,  or  of  the  two  ? Or,  is 
it  possible  that  one  blind  man  cried  out  for  help 
without  securing  it,  as  Jesus  went  into  the  city, 
and  that,  a second  blind  man  having  joined  the 
first  before  Jesus  came  out,  both  then  cried  for 
mercy,  and  both  received  their  sight  ? Or,  were 
there  two  Jerichos,  and  this  happened  between 
'■  Luke  1 8 : 35-43.  “ Mark  10  ; 46-52.  ® Matt.  20  : 29-34. 


Calls  for  Healing  in  the  East. 


303 


them?  A well-known  commentator  in  mention- 
ing this  difficulty  refers  to  “the  fourteen  or  fif- 
teen proposed  ways  of  harmonizing  the  discrep- 
ancies.” 

What  nonsense  ! Why,  whenever  you  enter 
any  city  or  any  village  in  the  East,  you  are  likely 
to  find  one  blind  man  on  one  side  of  the  way,  and 
two  blind  men  on  the  other  side  of  the  way,  and 
all  three  of  them  are  sure  to  call  on  you  for  help ! 
And  when  you  go  out  of  that  place  you  will 
probably  find  first  two  blind  men,  and  then  one 
blind  man,  and  then  two  blind  men  more,  all  of 
them  calling  on  you  to  show  mercy  to  them  in  the 
name  of  God.  It  is  the  most  natural  thing  in 
the  world  to  believe  that  our  Lord  cured  one 
blind  man  as  he  went  into  Jericho,  and  two  or 
three  as  he  went  out.  All  that  either  of  the 
Evangelists  reports  in  this  line  is  to  be  taken 
as  the  literal  truth,  eminently  reasonable  in  the 
light  of  the  present  state  of  things  in  the  land  of 
our  Lord — as  illustrative  of  the  state  of  things  in 
the  days  of  his  mission  there. 

My  friend  Dr.  Hilprecht  gave  me  his  testi- 
mony at  this  point  in  a striking  illustration. 
While  in  the  line  of  his  Oriental  researches  in 


304  Studies  in  Oi'iental  Social  Life. 

Constantinople,  he  passed  daily  over  the  “ New 
Bridge”  across  the  Golden  Horn,  connecting  the 
old  city  of  Stamboul  with  the  European  quarters 
of  Galata  and  Pera.  On  that  bridge,  at  the  very 
threshold  of  the  East,  he  saw,  ever)^  time  he 
crossed,  from  four  to  six  blind  beggars,  half  a 
dozen  lepers,  and  a dozen  or  more  cripples,  in- 
cluding repulsive  deformities  of  various  sorts,  and 
all  were  pleading  for  help  in  their  need.  Again 
and  again,  as  he  said,  the  cry  of  his  heart  went 
up,  “ Oh,  if  the  dear  iSIaster  would  only  come 
down  again  and  clear  this  bridge  of  its  crowd  of 
sufferers  ! ” 

Another  fact  that  sheds  light  upon  the  work 
of  Jesus  and  his  disciples  in  their  ministr)’  of 
healing,  is  the  universal  expectation,  in  the  East, 
of  the  cure  of  disease  through  the  supernatural 
power  of  some  reputed  representative  of  God. 
So  it  is,  and  so  it  has  been.  This  it  was  that 
crowded  the  five  porches  of  Bethesda  with  the 
“multitude  of  them  that  were  sick,  blind,  halt, 
withered,”  ^ waiting  anxiously  for  a periodic 
troubling  of  the  waters,  supposed  to  give  them 
curative  power,  as  from  heaven. 


• John  5 ; 3. 


Calls  for  Healing  in  the  East. 


305 


Lane  and  Klunzinger  both  bear  testimony  to 
the  power  still  exercised  in  lower  and  in  upper 
Eg)'pt  by  the  aid  el  bar  aka,  or  “ people  of  bless- 
ing,” who  are  supposed  to  bring  the  cure  of  dis- 
ease, or  other  benefits,  through  their  possession  of 
supernatural  favor.  This  class  includes  “shaykhs 
or  saints,  especially  silly,  childish,  crazy  people, 
as  well  as  ascetics  and  hermits  ; ” also  the  “ she- 
chas  of  the  sar,”  or  women  who  claim  to  rep- 
resent the  sar,  or  the  ginn  (genii)  of  sickness. 
Dr.  Jessup  gives  a corresponding  piedure  of  the 
“ strange-looking  saints,”  or  “horrible  wretches,” 
who  wander  about  the  Syrian  country  on  their 
reputed  mission  of  good  through  healing,  at  the 
present  time. 

Herodotus  told  of  the  Babylonian  custom,  in 
his  day,  of  laying  a sick  man  in  the  public  square, 
in  order  that  passers-by  might  be  of  service  to 
him  ; and  Dr.  Edersheim  quotes  the  Talmud  in 
evidence  that,  before  the  days  of  the  Apostle 
James,^  the  “visitation  of  the  sick  was  regarded 
as  a religious  duty ; the  more  so,  that  each  visitor 
was  supposed  to  carry  away  a small  portion  of 
the  disease.”  One  Talmudic  writer  affirms  spe- 

^ James  5 : 14. 

20 


3o6  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

cifically,  that  “whoever  visits  the  sick  takes  away 
a sixtieth  part  of  his  sufferings.”  Dr.  Van  Len- 
nep,  referring  to  the  testimony  of  Herodotus, 
shows  that  a similar  hope  of  help  to  the  sick  from 
the  prescriptions  of  chance  visitors  prevails  in 
Syria  to-day  as  in  Babylon  twenty-five  centuries 
ago.  Certainly  the  calls  for  help  to  the  sick  and 
suffering  in  the  East  are  hardly  less  impressive 
to  the  modern  traveler  than  the  need  of  such 
help,  all  the  way  through  Egypt,  Arabia,  and 
Palestine. 

As  three  of  us  sat  in  our  tent  at  Wady  Gharan- 
del,  during  a Sunday  rest  in  the  desert,  an  Arab 
came  and  squatted  at  the  tent  entrance,  and 
looking  up  into  our  faces  beseechingly  pointed 
to  one  of  his  teeth,  making  signs  that  it  gave 
him  pain,  and  he  wanted  it  pulled  or  cured.  He 
was  not  of  our  caravan,  but  having  heard  that 
“ PAiropeans  ” — as  all  Occidental  travelers  are 
called  in  the  East — were  on  the  desert,  he  had 
come  to  us  for  help,  in  accordance  with  the  uni- 
versal feeling  that  a wise  man  can  cure  disease. 
A simple  palliative  gave  him  relief,  and  quickly 
it  was  known  in  our  caravan  that  a hakeem  or 
“ medicine-man  ” was  one  of  our  number,  and 


Calls  for  Healing  in  the  East. 


307 


from  that  time  forward  calls  for  medical  treat- 
ment were  made  on  us  at  every  turn. 

When  the  Rev.  Dr.  George  Dana  Boardman 
was  traveling  over  this  very  path,  in  company 
with  Dr.  Darby,  a well-known  dentist  of  Phila- 
delphia, the  latter  found  an  Arab  suffering  from 
toothache,  and  relieved  him  by  extracting  the 
tooth.  The  next  morning,  as  the  travelers  were 
starting  on  their  journey,  a stranger  shaykh  with 
the  toothache  presented  himself,  seeking  relief. 
But  as  Dr.  Darby’s  baggage,  including  his  case 
of  instruments,  was  already  packed  on  a baggage 
camel,  the  request  had  to  be  refused.  When  the 
party  halted  again  at  the  close  of  the  day,  and 
the  travelers  were  in  their  tents  once  more,  this 
shaykh,  who  had  patiently  jogged  after  the  cara- 
van all  the  day  long,  was  found  squatting  at  the 
entrance  of  Dr.  Darby’s  tent,  pointing  compla- 
cently at  his  aching  tooth,  with  a look  that  seemed 
to  say,  “ Perhaps  you  can  get  at  your  instruments 
now,  Dodlor;”  and  Dr.  Darby  so  interpreted  it. 
When  the  tooth  had  been  pulled,  the  old  shaykh 
was  so  delighted  with  the  skill  of  the  perform- 
ance and  the  sense  of  relief  following  it,  that  he 
asked  to  have  another  tooth  pulled,  in  view  of 


3o8  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

the  possibility  of  a fresh  attack  of  toothache 
when  the  dentist  was  no  longer  at  hand.  It 
may  be  that  the  Arab  who  came  to  us  to  have 
a tooth  pulled  had  been  told  of  Dr.  Darby’s 
skill  and  kindness. 

At  Wady  Fayran  there  came  a poor  cripple 
invoking  assistance.  He  had  been  bitten  by  one 
of  the  “ fiery  serpents  ” ^ of  the  desert.  Rude 
attempts  at  checking  the  sweep  of  the  poison 
had  resulted  in  the  sloughing  off  of  his  foot  and 
the  lower  part  of  his  leg;  and  an  ugly  stump, 
with  its  withered  muscles  and  its  protruding 
bone,  was  the  result.  But  no  other  aid  to  him 
than  bakhsheesh  was  possible  from  our  party. 

A blind  beggar  was  one  of  the  many  outside 
dependants  of  the  Convent  of  St.  Catharine  at 
Mt.  Sinai.  As  he  sat  among  the  old  ruins  near 
the  Hill  of  the  Golden  Calf,  basking  in  the  sun- 
light which  he  could  not  see,  I proffered  him  an 
orangfe,  since  I had  found  that  fruit  most  refresh- 
ing  in  our  desert  travel ; and  he  thanked  me  for 
it.  Our  dragoman  suggested  that  the  poor  fel- 
low would  prefer  a crust  of  bread  to  an  orange. 
To  test  him  on  this,  the  dragoman  put  a bit  of 


* Num.  21:6. 


Calls  for  Healing  in  the  East. 


309 


dry  bread,  brought  all  the  way  from  Cairo,  into 
the  blind  man’s  left  hand,  and  the  orange  in  his 
rio^ht,  telling  him  that  he  could  have  his  choice 
between  the  two.  With  a smile,  the  beggarquickly 
gave  back  the  orange,  and  retained  the  crust. 
Then,  in  indication  of  a want  deeper  than  hun- 
ger, he  poised  the  coveted  crust  in  one  hand, 
and  pointed  with  the  other  to  his  sightless  eyes, 
asking  me,  in  Arabic,  if  I could  not  cure  him  of 
his  blindness.^  An  orange  was  good  ; bread  was 
better ; but  sight  was  best  of  all.  How  I wished 
for  the  power  of  opening  those  closed  eyes,  as 
the  eyes  of  Bartimeus  and  his  fellow-beggars 
were  opened  ! But  I was  helpless  there.  I was 
no  hakeem. 

At  Castle  Nakhl,  in  mid-desert,  the  old  Egyp- 
tian governor,  a veteran  soldier  of  the  Crimean 
War  now  well-nigh  seventy  years  old,  wanted  us 
to  cure  him  of  the  growing  infirmities  of  age. 
Almost  any  medicine  which  we  might  have  with 
us  would,  he  thought,  answer  his  purpose.  As 
our  party  sat  conversing  with  him,  we  saw  three 
dromedaries  coming  at  top  speed  over  the  des- 
ert from  eastward  ; and  soon  old  Shaykh  Musleh, 
^Matt.  9 : 27-30;  Mark  8 : 23-25  ; John  i : 1-7. 


310  Studies  in  Oi'iental  Social  Life. 

of  the  Teeyahah  tribe,  \vith  his  son  and  an  at- 
tendant, were  with  us,  having  heard  of  our 
approach  and  hurried  to  meet  us.  The  shaykh 
was  evidently  wasting  away  with  consumption, 
and  his  eyes  were  badly  inflamed.  He  asked  it 
of  us,  as  a personal  favor,  to  cure  his  failing 
sight  and  his  troublesome  cough.  He  seemed 
to  have  no  doubt  that  we  could  help  him  at  both 
points  if  we  chose  to  do  so.  Then  his  attendant 
wanted  medicines  for  some  sick  ones  who  could 
not  come  to  us  personally.  And  these  are  but 
illustrations  of  the  calls  for  healing,  and  of  the 
hope  of  cure  by  supernatural  help,  which  prevail 
throughout  the  East,  as  every  traveler  will  be 
ready  to  testify. 

It  was  in  recognition  of  this  popular  feeling 
that,  nearly  a century  ago,  Napoleon  passed 
through  the  hospital  of  the  Greek  Convent  at 
Jaffa,  and  laid  his  hand  on  those  who  were  in- 
fected with  the  plague,  in  order  that  they  might 
be  healed  through  his  touch, — a relic  of  this 
Eastern  superstition  being  found,  until  lately,  in 
the  European  idea  that  scrofula — or  “king’s 
evil” — could  be  cured  by  the  touch  of  the  king. 
Forty  years  later,  the  American  traveler  Stephens 


Calls  for  Healing  in  the  East.  3 1 1 

saw  so  much  of  this  state  of  things  in  his  jour- 
neying in  Palestine  and  adjacent  countries,  that, 
in  view  of  the  gratitude  shown  to  him  for  his 
simple  prescriptions  to  one  sick  shaykh  after  an- 
other, his  testimony  was;  “I  cannot  help  observ- 
ing, ...  as  illustrating  the  state  of  society  in  the 
East,  that  if  a skilful  physician,  by  the  appli- 
cation of  his  medical  science,  should  raise  an 
Arab  from  what,  without  such  application,  would 
be  his  bed  of  death,  the  ignorant  people  would  be 
very  likely  to  believe  it  a miracle,  and  to  follow 
him  with  that  degree  of  faith  which  would  give 
evidence  to  the  saving  virtue  of  touching  the 
‘border  of  his  garment.’ 

And  when  the  Prince  of  Wales  and  his  party 
were  in  the  regions  of  Lebanon,  forty  years  ago, 
they  were  beset  with  calls  for  help,  not  only  in 
the  political  restoration  of  a deposed  shaykh,  but 
in  the  recovery  of  the  sick.  “We  found  the 
stairs  and  corridors  of  the  castle  lined  with  a 
crowd  of  eager  applicants,”  says  Dean  Stanley, 
“ ‘sick  people  taken  with  divers  diseases,’"  who, 
hearing  that  there  was  a medical  man  in  the 
party,  had  thronged  round  him,  ‘ beseeching  him 
* Matt.  14 : 36.  ^ See  Matt.  4 : 24. 


3 1 2 Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

that  he  would  heal  them.’”^  “I  mention  this  in- 
cident,” adds  the  Dean,  “because  it  illustrates  so 
forcibly  those  scenes  in  the  gospel  history,  from 
which  I have  almost  of  necessity  borrowed  the 
language  best  fitted  to  describe  the  eagerness,  the 
hope,  the  variety,  of  the  multitude  who  had  been 
attracted  by  the  fame  of  this  beneficent  influence.” 
What  a light  all  this  throws  upon  the  human 
ministry  of  Jesus  Christ  and  his  apostles  in 
Palestine  ! He  came  into  that  vast  open  hos- 
pital of  suffering  and  need,  where  longing  hearts 
had  hope,  if  at  all,  of  help  through  some  repre- 
sentative of  God.  “And  Jesus  went  about  all 
the  cities  and  the  villages,  teaching  in  their 
synagogues,  and  preaching  the  gospel  of  the 
[looked-for]  kingdom,  and  healing  all  manner  of 
disease  and  all  manner  of  sickness.”  “And  the 
report  of  him  went  forth  into  all  Syria:  and  they 
brought  unto  him  all  that  were  sick,  holden  with 
divers  diseases  and  torments,  possessed  with 
devils,  and  epileptic,  and  palsied  ; and  he  healed 
them.”^  “Wheresoever  he  entered,  into  villages, 
or  into  cities,  or  into  the  country,  they  laid  the 

* See  Matt.  8 : 6,  7 ; Mark  i ; 40 ; Luke  9 ; 38. 

“ Matt.  4 ; 24. 


^ Matt.  9 : 35. 


Calls  for  Healing  in  the  East.  3 1 3 

sick  in  the  market-places,  and  besought  him  that 
they  might  touch  if  it  were  but  the  border  of  his 
garment : and  as  many  as  touched  him  were 
made  whole.”  ^ The  blind  received  their  sight, 
and  the  lame  walked,  the  lepers  were  cleansed, 
the  deaf  heard,  and  the  dead  were  raised  up. 
It  is  no  wonder  that  the  people  “were  beyond 
measure  astonished,  saying.  He  hath  done  all 
things  well.”  ^ 

And  when  Jesus  Christ  sent  out  his  apostles, 
in  his  name,  and  for  his  work,  he  “gave  them 
authority  over  unclean  spirits,  to  cast  them  out, 
and  to  heal  all  manner  of  disease  and  all  manner 
of  sickness.”^  They,  also,  went  everywhere, 
preaching,  and  teaching,  and  healing  ; and  thus 
the  plan  of  God  in  the  ministry  of  his  Son  was 
conformed  to  the  weaknesses  and  the  needs  of 
the  waiting  people,  among  whom  that  ministry 
was  first  exercised  lovingly. 

In  his  essay  on  The  Essenes,  De  Quincey  calls 
attention  to  the  fadl  that  “ at  least  nine  in  ten  of 
Christ’s  miracles  were  medical  miracles — miracles 
applied  to  derangements  of  the  human  system.” 
“As  to  the  motives  which  governed  our  Saviour 
* Mark  6 : 56.  “ Mark  7 : 37.  “ Matt.  10  ; i. 


314  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

in  this  particular  choice;”  he  says,  “ it  would  be 
truly  ridiculous,  and  worthy  of  a modern  utilita- 
rian, to  suppose  that  Christ  would  have  suffered 
his  time  to  be  occupied,  and  the  great  vision  of 
his  contemplations  to  be  interrupted,  by  an  em- 
ployment so  trifling  (trifling,  surely,  by  compari- 
son with  his  transcendent  purposes)  as  the  healing 
of  a few  hundreds,  more  or  less,  in  one  small  dis- 
trict, through  one  brief  triennium.  This  healing 
office  was  adopted,  not  chiefly  for  its  own  sake, 
but  partly  as  a symbolic  annunciation  of  a supe- 
rior healing,  abundantly  significant  to  Oriental 
minds ; chiefly,  however,  as  the  indispensable 
means,  in  an  Eastern  land,  of  advertising  his  ap- 
proach far  and  wide,  and  thus  convoking  the 
people  by  myriads  to  his  instructions. 

“ From  Barbary  to  Hindostan — from  the  set- 
ting to  the  rising  sun — it  is  notorious  that  no 
traveling  character  is  so  certainly  a safe  one  as 
that  of  hakim,  or  physician.  As  he  advances  on 
his  route  the  news  flies  before  him  ; disease  is 
evoked  as  by  the  rod  of  Amram’s  son  ; ^ the  beds 
of  sick  people,^  in  every  rank,  are  arranged  along 

*See  I Chron.  6:3;  Exod.  4 : 17. 

^ Mark  6 ; 56 ; Acts  5:15. 


Calls  for  Healing  in  the  East. 


315 


the  roadsides  ; and  the  beneficent  dispenser  of 
health  or  of  relief  moves  through  the  prayers  of 
hope  on  the  one  side,  and  of  gratitude  on  the 
other.  . . . This  medical  character  the  apostles 
and  their  delegates  adopted,  using  it  both  as  the 
trumpet  of  summons  to  some  central  rendezvous, 
and  also  as  the  ver}'  best  means  of  opening  the 
heart  to  religious  influences — the  heart  softened 
already  by  suffering,  turned  inwards  by  solitary 
musing,  or  melted,  perhaps,  by  relief  from  anguish 
into  fervent  gratitude.” 

All  the  experience  of  modern  missionaries  in 
the  East  groes  to  show  the  wisdom  of  the  method 
employed  by  Jesus  Christ  and  his  apostles  in 
giving  attention  to  diseased  bodies  as  a means 
of  access  to  diseased  souls.  The  pracl;ice  of  medi- 
cine is,  again,  one  of  the  recognized  agencies  of 
Christian  missions  in  Eg}^pt,  in  Syria,  in  Turkey, 
and  in  Persia,  in  India,  in  China,  in  Japan,  and  in 
Siam  ; and  ever^nvhere  its  wisdom  as  a pioneer 
evangelizing  agency  is  illustrated  in  the  potency 
of  its  influence. 

Mrs.  Isabella  Bird  Bishop  sums  up  the  results 
of  her  observations  on  this  subjecl,  in  various  por- 
tions of  the  world,  in  this  emphatic  testimony  : 


3 1 6 Shidies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

“To  my  thinking,  no  one  follows  in  the  Master’s 
footprints  so  closely  as  the  medical  missionar}', 
and  on  no  agency  for  alleviating  human  suffering 
can  one  look  with  more  unqualified  satisfaction. 
The  medical  mission  is  the  outcome  of  the  living 
teachings  of  our  faith.  I have  now  visited  such 
missions  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  and  never 
saw  one  which  was  not  healing,  helping,  bless- 
ing ; softening  prejudice,  diminishing  suffering, 
making  an  end  of  many  of  the  cruelties  which 
proceed  from  ignorance,  restoring  sight  to  the 
blind,  limbs  to  the  crippled,  health  to  the  sick, 
telling,  in  every  work  of  love  and  of  consecrated 
skill,  of  the  infinite  compassion  of  Him  who  came 
‘not  to  destroy  men’s  lives,  but  to  save  them.’”^ 
Sir  William  Muir,  who  has  had  rare  opportuni- 
ties of  competent  observation  in  the  East,  says 
on  the  same  point : “Throughout  Eastern  lands, 
indeed,  and  especially  amongst  Mahometans, 
the  Christian  hakeem  is  always  respeCled,  and 
always  welcome  ; and  the  gospel  which  he  carries 
in  one  hand  is  graciously  received,  because  of  the 
material  benefits  held  out  by  the  other.  And  so  it 
comes  to  pass  that  healing  remedies,  and  kindly 
^ Luke  9 : 56. 


Calls  for  Healing  in  the  East. 


317 


treatment  of  the  suffering,  become  an  important 
means  of  making  the  missionary  popular,  and  pre- 
paring the  soil  for  reception  of  the  gospel.” 

A good  illustration  of  the  value  of  the  medical 
missionary  as  a pioneer  agency  of  the  gospel,  in 
the  East,  is  furnished  in  the  experience  of  Dr. 
Allen  Avho  went  from  America  to  Korea.  During^ 
a political  outbreak,  soon  after  his  arrival  there, 
Min  Yong  Ik,  a nephew  of  the  king,  was  severely 
wounded.  “When  Dr.  Allen  was  called  to  Min 
Yong  Ik,  he  found  thirteen  native  doctors  trying 
to  stanch  his  wounds  by  filling  them  with  wax. 
Standing  aside  for  the  young  missionary,  they 
looked  on  with  amazement  while  he  tied  the 
arteries  and  sewed  up  the  gaping  wounds.  Thus 
in  a few  minutes  a revolution  was  effected  in  the 
medical  treatment  of  the  kingdom,  at  the  same 
time  an  incalculable  vantage-ground  was  thus 
gained  for  the  introduction  of  the  gospel.”  The 
young  prince  said  afterwards  to  Dr.  Allen:  “Our 
people  cannot  believe  that  you  came  from  Amer- 
ica : they  insist  that  you  must  have  dropped  from 
heaven  for  this  special  crisis.” 

The  “medical  mission”  was  inaugurated  by 
our  Lord  himself,  as  a proof  of  his  divine  min- 


3 1 8 Sbidies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

istry,  when  he  “healed  all  that  were  sick:  that 
it  might  be  fulfilled  which  was  spoken  by  Isaiah^ 
the  prophet,  saying,  Himself  took  our  infirmities, 
and  bare  our  diseases.”^  And  this  mission  will 
not  be  outgrown  in  any  land  of  the  East  until 
that  other  prophecy  of  Isaiah  shall  be  fulfilled  for 
that  land:  “And  the  inhabitant  shall  not  say,  I 
am  sick  : [and]  the  people  that  dwell  therein 
shall  be  forgiven  their  iniquity.”  ^ 

■ See  Isa.  53  : 4.  ^ Matt.  8 : 16, 17.  ^ Isa.  33  : 24. 


GOLD  AND  SILVER  IN  THE  DESERT. 


One  of  the  puzzling  things  in  the  Bible  story 
of  the  wandering  Israelites  is  the  abundance  of 
gold  and  silver  and  precious  stones  which  those 
fugitive  slaves  appear  to  have  had  ready  on  any 
call  for  religious  gifts  and  offerings  in  the  wilder- 
ness. Although  they  had  been  held  in  bitter 
bondage  for  generations,  and  therefore  might 
fairly  be  counted  poor  in  this  world’s  goods,  they 
first  supplied  golden  ear-rings  in  sufficient  quan- 
tity for  a molten  calf ; and  then,  when  that  gold 

319 


320  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

had  been  taken  from  them  and  destroyed^  they 
responded  to  the  summons  for  the  tabernacle 
building  and  furnishing  with  such  an  abundance 
of  gold  and  silver  ornaments,  and  of  costly  jew- 
els, as  would  put  to  shame  the  contributions  of 
wealthy  givers  in  the  richer  cities  of  the  world 
to-day  in  their  highest  enthusiasm  of  church  erec- 
tion. Can  this  be  reasonable  and  consistent? 

The  mention,  by  a mistranslation  in  the  author- 
ized version  of  our  English  Bible,  of  the  fabl  that 
the  departing  slaves  had  “borrowed”^  jewels 
of  gold  and  jewels  of  silver,  ever)'  man  of  his 
neighbor,  and  every  woman  of  her  neighbor,  in 
the  land  of  Egypt,  without  a thought  of  ever  re- 
turning them,  only  threw  a shade,  in  the  popular 
mind,  over  the  morality  of  the  Israelites,  without 
sufficiently  making  clear  the  possibility  of  their 
seemingly  abounding  wealth.  Here  again  it  is 
that  light  is  found  in  the  unchanging  peculiarities 
of  the  lands  and  the  people  of  Egypt  and  Arabia. 

To  this  day  the  women  of  both  Egypt  and 
Arabia  adorn  themselves  with  gold  and  silver 
coins  and  other  ornaments,  to  an  extent  quite 
unknown  in  more  enlightened  lands,  and  far  be- 
* Exod.  32  : 20.  * Exod.  12  ; 35. 


Gold  and  Silver  in  the  Desert. 


yond  their  apparent  wealth,  as  shown  in  their 
garments  or  their  dwellings.  Bracelets,  anklets, 
ear-rings,  nose-rings,  finger-rings,  brooches,  neck- 
laces, and  ornaments  for  the  hair,  are  seen,  not 
alone  on  the  persons  of  the  rich,  but  on  those 
also  who  are  scantily  and  coarsely  clad,  and  who 
live  in  mud  huts.  Several  causes  combine  to  give 
prominence  and  permanency  to  this  custom. 

There  are  no  savings-banks  in  those  lands,  in 
which  to  deposit  one’s  accumulations,  nor  are 
there  any  safe  modes  of  investment  at  usury. 
The  lack  of  confidence  between  man  and  man 
makes  each  person  cling  to  what  he  has,  as  in 
safe  hands  only  while  it  is  in  his  own  hands.  He 
hoards  cash  as  a Christian  in  America  does  in  a 
time  of  financial  panic.  Therefore  each  new  gold 
or  silver  coin,  as  it  is  obtained,  is  likely  to  be 
punHured,  and  attached  by  a wire  to  the  string 
of  coins  already  wound  about  the  owner’s  head 
or  hanging  from  the  neck  and  so  the  weight  of 
hoarded  personal  treasure  grows.  The  more 
oppressive  a system  of  bondage  becomes  in  such 
a land,  the  more  the  enslaved  will  prize  gold  or 
silver  for  its  own  sake,  and  the  less  regard  will 

* Luke  15:8. 

21 


32  2 Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

be  paid  by  those  of  that  class  to  outer  dress,  or 
to  an  uncertain  home  and  its  furnishing. 

Moreover,  the  system  of  polygamy,  with  its  ini- 
quities and  hardships,  prevailing  in  those  lands 
to-day,  as  it  prevailed  in  the  days  of  Moses,  tends 
to  make  this  loading  of  the  person  with  gold  and 
silver  a temptation,  and,  in  a certain  sense,  a 
necessity,  to  the  women  there.  A wife  is  likely  to 
be  divorced  at  any  time,  and  in  such  an  event 
she  must  leave  her  husband’s  house  at  once. 
But  she  has  an  undisputed  right  to  the  posses- 
sion of  whatever  is  upon  her  person  at  that  time, 
even  though  there  may  be  disputes  about  her 
right  of  dowry.  Hence  it  is  an  object  of  interest 
to  a woman  to  have  as  large  a treasure  as  possi- 
ble upon  her  person  at  all  times,  as  it  may  prove, 
in  an  emergency,  her  only  means  of  support. 

Whatever  causes  may  have  led  to  this  habit  at 
the  outset,  the  facd  of  it  is  indisputable  ; and  the 
people  themselves  would  perhaps  be  unable  to 
tell  whv  thev  induHe  in  it.  The  hoardino-  of  orold 

✓ ^ o o o 

and  silver  in  coin,  and  in  ornaments  for  the  per- 
son, is  wellnigh  universal  in  those  lands.  It  be- 
gins in  infancy.  As  the  child  grows  in  years, 
constant  additions  are  made  to  its  stock  of  pre- 


Gold  and  Silver  in  the  Desert. 


cious  metals  in  personal  aclornings.  A bride’s 
dowry  is  hung  upon  her  person.  A wife’s  wealth 
is  carried  there.  The  men,  meantime,  store  their 
treasures  in  coin  and  jewels  out  of  sight,  but  not 
out  of  mind. 

As  we  were  traveling  in  the  upper  desert,  near 
the  site  of  Kadesh-barnea,  late  one  evening,  there 
was  a sudden  halt  in  the  camel-train,  and  a jab- 
bering in  Arabic  was  heard  among  our  Bed'ween 
attendants  in  the  darkness.  Asking  what  had 
happened,  we  were  told  that  my  camel-driver 
had  lost  a lot  of  gold  and  silver  coin,  and  wanted 
to  stop  and  hunt  for  it.  The  driver  had  every 
appearance  of  poverty ; there  were  no  ornaments 
of  gold  or  silver  on  his  person,  and  he  had  not 
yet  been  paid  for  his  present  camel-service  ; but 
in  a knotted  corner  of  a coarse  girdle,  wound 
about  his  single  short  and  dirty  cotton  garment, 
there  had  been  tied  up  a stock  of  gold  and  silver 
that  would  have  supplied  him  with  parched  corn 
or  barley  Hour  for  the  remainder  of  his  natural 
life.  The  knot  in  his  girdle  slipping,  as  he  fin- 
gered it  complacently  in  the  darkness,  his  money 
had  suddenly  gone  from  him,  and  that  was  the 
cause  of  the  jabbering.  Then  it  was  that  a Yan- 


324  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

kee  pocket-lantern  did  good  service  with  its  small 
wax  taper;  and  as  its  light  pointed  out  the  miss- 
ing money  on  the  desert,  there  was  a new  light 
shed  on  the  Bible  story  of  the  gold  and  silver  in 
that  same  desert  forty  centuries  ago. 

That  this  has  been  the  state  of  things  in  all 
the  intervening  ages,  in  both  Egypt  and  Arabia, 
the  testimony  of  sacred  and  profane  histor}^ 
bears  ample  witness.  Look  at  the  paintings  and 
sculptures  of  the  Egyptian  tombs  and  temples, 
in  evidence  of  this!  See  also  the  treasures  of 
gold  and  silver  and  precious  stones,  in  the  shape 
of  personal  ornaments,  unearthed  from  the 
tombs  of  Egypt,  and  gathered  in  the  museums 
at  Boolaq,  Turin,  the  Louvre,  and  London. 

Read  the  story  of  Gideon’s  triumph  over  the 
Midianites  at  the  plain  of  Jezreel,  and  of  his 
request  for  a share  of  the  spoil  in  this  very  line 
in  the  days  of  the  Judges!  “And  Gideon  said 
unto  them,  1 would  desire  a request  of  you,  that 
ye  would  give  me  every  man  the  earrings  of  his 
spoil.  (Lor  they  had  golden  earrings,  because  they 
were  Ishmaelites.)  ” ^ The  Bed'ween  of  to-day  are 
descendants  of  those  Ishmaelites.  “And  they 


Judg.  8 : 24. 


Gold  and  Silver  in  the  Desert. 


325 


answered,  We  will  willingly  give  them.  And 
they  spread  a garment,  and  did  cast  therein 
ever\^  man  the  earrings  of  his  spoil.  And  the 
weight  of  the  golden  earrings  that  he  requested 
was  a thousand  and  seven  hundred  shekels  of 
gold ; beside  the  crescents  and  pendants,  and  the 
purple  raiment  that  was  on  the  kings  [shaykhs] 
of  Midian,  and  beside  the  chains  that  were  about 
their  camels’  necks.”  ^ 

To-day  the  goldsmiths  and  silversmiths  of  the 
bazaars  of  Cairo  and  Jerusalem  and  Damascus 
are  multiplying  the  personal  ornaments  of  the 
women  and  children  of  the  East  to  an  extent 
unknown  in  the  newer  countries  of  the  West, 
but  always  prevailing  in  the  unchanged  and  un- 
changeable lands  of  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  Syria. 
And  on  the  desert  to-day  the  Bed'ween  men  and 
women  have  gold  and  silver  ornaments  upon 
their  persons,  and  gold  and  silver  coin  hoarded 
away  from  sight,  to  an  extent  which  brings  the 
Bible  story  of  the  treasured  wealth  of  the  Israel- 
ites in  that  desert  within  the  limits  of  entire 
reasonableness  and  probability. 

I have  seen  a Bed'wy  woman,  in  that  desert, 
'Judg.  8 : 24-26. 


326  Studies  in  Oi'icntal  Social  Life. 

with  a single  scanty  and  filthy  blue  cotton  gar- 
ment, hurrying  out  of  sight  into  her  coarse  black 
goats’  hair  tent,  fairly  weighted  down  with  her 
swaying  head-dress  and  necklace  of  hanging 
coins,  and  with  heavy  nose -ring  and  ear-rings 
and  bracelets  and  anklets  of  silver. 

An  old  shaykh,  in  mid-desert,  whose  dress  be- 
spoke a disregard  of  appearances  if  not  a lack 
of  means,  asked  my  intercession  in  securing  the 
release  of  his  nephew  from  custody  at  Jerusalem. 
He  was  ready  to  pay  a thousand  dollars,  if  neces- 
sary for  the  employment  of  an  English-speak- 
ing lawyer,  and  other  thousands,  if  need  be,  for 
a ransom.  He  had  the  hoarded  gold,  and  he 
could  have  brought  it  out  if  he  had  really  be- 
come interested  in  the  casting  of  a golden  calf 
or  the  building  and  furnishing  of  a tabernacle. 
If,  indeed,  no  such  use  was  made  of  it,  he  would 
pass  it  down  to  his  children ; and  so  its  accumu- 
lations would  increase,  generation  by  generation, 
in  his  tribe  and  household. 

Hajji  Tarfa,  shaykh  of  the  Affej  tribes  in  Baby- 
lonia, on  whose  protection  the  members  of  the 
Babylonian  exploring  expedition,  sent  out  by  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  depended  while  ex- 


Gold  and  Silver  in  the  Desert. 


327 


cavating’  at  Xiffer,  is  said  to  have  fully  ^150,000 
in  gold  coin  hoarded  and  buried.  Yet  he  makes 
no  show  of  wealth,  and  he  lives  as  plainly  as  any 
ordinary  Arab  shaykh. 

And  now  as  to  the  “borrowing”  of  the  jewels 
of  gold  and  jewels  of  silver,  by  the  departing 
Israelites  from  their  Egyptian  neighbors,  over 
which  there  have  been  so  many  carpings  by  evil- 
disposed  critics  or  by  over-anxious  readers  The 
Hebrew  word  means  “asking”  not  “borrowing,” 
and  is  so  translated  in  the  Revised  Version.  The 
habit  of  asking  a gift  from  one  in  whose  service 
a person  has  been,  on  the  occasion  of  parting,  is 
universal  in  those  lands  to-day — as  always.  The 
idea  is  very  different  from  that  of  asking  an  alms  ; 
although  a beggar  will  cry  for  “bakhsheesh” 
(a  gift)  for  the  purpose  of  raising  the  level  of  his 
request  for  assistance. 

If  an  Oriental  has  served  you,  he  expedls  to 
be  not  only  paid  for  the  service  according  to  the 
stipulated  rate,  but  also  to  receive  from  you  a 
gift  when  he  leaves  you,  as  a token  of  your 
friendship,  and  as  a proof  of  your  satisfaction 
with  him.  This  is  not  in  the  case  of  menials 
alone  : it  is  the  same  all  the  way  up  to  those  in 


328 


Studies  in  Oric7ital  Social  Life. 


highest  authority.  Shaykh  Moosa,  chief  shaykh 
of  the  Tawarah  Arabs,  who  took  charge  of  our 
party  from  Cairo  to  Sinai,  and  thence  northward 
to  Castle  Nakhl,  was  a man  of  character  and 
ability,  and  of  ample  means  also.  A formal  con- 
trad  was  made  with  him  to  convoy  our  party 
over  that  route  for  a certain  specified  sum,  bakh- 
sheesh  included ; but  when  we  were  at  our  jour- 
ney’s end  with  him,  we  found  that  unless  we 
gave  him  a special  “gift”  at  parting,  we  should 
seem  to  be  lacking  in  satisfaction  with  his  ser- 
vices ; therefore  we  added  a coin  of  gold  to  his 
hoard,  and  gladdened  his  heart  in  so  doing. 

And  the  Egyptian  military  governor  at  Castle 
Nakhl  was  glad  to  have  us  recognize  his  services 
— in  entertaining  us  with  true  Oriental  hospital- 
ity— by  paying  his  full  price  for  a nominal  guard 
over  our  tents,  and  then  adding  as  a parting 
“gift”  to  himself  a showy  red  silk  handkerchief 
and  a box  of  Alexandria  fig-paste.  If  we  had 
not  been  thoughtful  enough  to  proffer  these  gifts 
without  being  asked,  we  should  doubtless  have 
been  reminded,  as  were  the  Egyptians  of  old, 
that  a parting  “gift”  was  what  might  fairly  be 
expected  under  the  circumstances. 


Gold  and  Silver  m the  Desert. 


329 


A good  illustration  of  this  way  of  asking  a 
parting  “gift”  was  furnished  by  our  accomplished 
and  faithful  dragoman,  Muhammad  Ahmad.  He 
was  a man  of  intelligence  and  of  wealth,  the 
owner  of  several  houses  in  Alexandria.  He  had 
no  need  to  be  in  service  as  a dragoman  ; in  faCl, 
it  was  probably  a loss  to  him  pecuniarily  ; but  he 
enjoyed  the  occupation,  and  followed  it  with  en- 
thusiasm. Our  contract  with  him  was  a written 
one.  By  its  terms,  all  expenses — bakhsheesh  for 
himself,  for  his  attendants,  and  for  our  escorts, 
included — were  to  be  covered  by  the  stipulated 
price.  As  we  neared  our  journey’s  end,  how- 
ever, he  asked  a “ gift  ” of  me  ; not  an  outright 
gift  at  parting,  but  the  promise  of  something  to 
be  sent  to  him  from  America,  as  a token  of  my 
remembrance  of  him,  and  as  a proof  to  others 
that  he  had  served  me  satisfactorily.  He  even 
told  me  what  he  would  like  the  “gift  ” to  be  : it 
was  a traveling  valise  of  a peculiar  construction, 
like  one  I had  with  me  on  the  journey.  I will- 
ingly  gave  him  a promise  accordingly,  and  he 
frequently  reminded  me  of  it  afterwards. 

A few  days  before  we  finally  parted,  Muham- 
mad came  to  one  of  my  young  friends,  and. 


330  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

stating  the  case  to  him  deliberately,  he  asked 
whether  he  thought  that  Mr.  Trumbull  would  take 
offense  if  he  should  request  him  to  discount  that 
promise  before  we  separated,  and  give  him  its 
value  in  hard  cash.^  Being  told  of  this,  I spoke 
to  the  dragoman  about  it,  and  he  expressed  the 
hope  that  I would  not  think  him  grasping,  but 
really  he  would  like  a “gift”  in  his  hands  while 
I was  yet  with  him.  Accordingly,  I gave  him 
the  money  desired,  and  as  he  thanked  me  he 
suggested  that  I could  yet  send  him  something 
from  America,  if  I felt  so  disposed.  This  was  not 
begging — of  course  not  ; but  it  was  a way  they 
have  in  Eg)'pt,  and  that  they  had  there  in  the 
days  of  Moses. 

When  Dr.  Hilprecht  journeyed  into  the  Le- 
banon region,  he  had  a muleteer  who  was  com- 
mended to  him  by  the  sisters  of  the  Prussian 
hospital  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  at  Beyrout. 
At  the  close  of  his  journey  he  paid  the  man  in 
full  according  to  the  terms  of  his  agreement. 
Then  the  man  asked  for  bakhsheesh.  Dr.  Hil- 
precht protested  that  he  had  barely  money  enough 
left  to  pay  his  fare  to  Alexandretta.  But  the 
' Matt.  5 : 42. 


Gold  and  Silver  in  the  Desert.  331 

muleteer  would  not  be  consoled  except  with  a 
gift  in  cash.  He  said  that  he  could  not  face  the 
sisters  who  had  commended  him  unless  he  could 
show  them  bakhsheesh  on  his  return,  in  proof  of 
his  faithful  service.  So  Dr.  Hilprecht  had  to 
give  him  his  last  two  mejeedis,  and  in  conse- 
quence to  go  without  food  for  fifty- two  hours. 
Thus  imperative  is  the  demand  for  a gift  to  a 
servant  on  parting  with  him. 

It  was  in  accordance  with  this  very  custom — 
then,  as  now,  universal  and  well  understood  in 
the  East — that  the  Lord  said,  by  Moses,  to  the 
long-oppressed  and  hard-working  Israelites  who 
were  to  go  out  from  Egypt  into  the  land  which 
the  Lord  had  prepared  for  them  : “ I will  give 
this  people  favor  in  the  sight  of  the  Egyptians  : 
and  it  shall  come  to  pass,  that,  when  ye  go,  ye 
shall  not  go  empty  : but  every  woman  shall  ask 
of  her  neighbor,  and  of  her  that  sojourneth  in  her 
house,  jewels  of  silver,  and  jewels  of  gold,  and 
raiment:  and  ye  shall  put  them  upon  your  sons, 
and  upon  your  daughters  ; and  ye  shall  spoil 
[carry  away  the  treasures  of]  the  Egyptians.”  ^ 
It  was  not  in  dishonesty  or  unfairness,  nor  by  any 


* Exod.  3:21,  22. 


332  Studies  in  Oric7ital  Social  Life. 

deceit  or  misrepresentation,  but  it  was  the  most 
natural  thing  in  the  world,  that  “the  children  of 
Israel  did  according  to  the  word  of  Moses ; and 
they  asked  of  the  Egyptians  jewels  of  silver,  and 
jewels  of  gold,  and  raiment : and  the  Lord  gave 
the  people  favor  in  the  sight  of  the  Egyptians, 
so  that  they  let  them  have  what  they  asked.”  ^ 
And  so  it  was  that  the  Israelites  had  an  abun- 
dant store  of  gold  and  silver  in  the  desert. 

" Exod.  12  : 35,  36. 


THE  PILGRIMAGE  IDEA  IN  THE  EAST. 


A traveler  in  the  East  is  sure  to  be  impressed 
by  the  prominence  and  influence  of  the  pilgrim- 
age idea,  as  shown  among  different  peoples,  in 
different  countries,  and  for  different  apparent 
reasons.  And  the  more  a student  of  primitive 
customs  thinks  about  this  thing,  the  more  sug- 
gestive to  him  it  is  in  its  facds  and  teachings. 
At  first  thought,  a pilgrimage  might  seem  to  be 
a mere  plan  of  visiting  a sacred  site  or  shrine  in 
companies  ; but  when  the  sentiment  connebled 
with  the  journeying  itself  is  considered,  and  when 

333 


oo4 


in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


its  accompaniment  of  formal  circuits  and  other 
specified  movements  are  taken  into  account,  it  is 
obvious  that  there  is  a symbolism  in  pilgrimage 
that  is  of  widespread  acceptance  in  the  East,  and 
is  recognized  to  a greater  or  less  extent  in  other 
parts  of  the  world. 

In  Egypt  I found  the  season  of  the  annual 
great  Hajj,  or  pilgrimage  to  Meccah,  employed 
as  a date  from  which,  or  toward  which,  time  was 
popularly  reckoned  ; and  the  men  who  had  borne 
a part  in  that  Hajj  were  held  in  honor  as  hajjis 
because  of  their  meritorious  performance.  On 
the  desert  of  Arabia  I came  more  than  once  on  the 
track  of  the  Hajj  from  Suez  to  Aqabar,  dotted, 
as  it  was,  with  the  wayside  graves  of  pilgrims 
who  had  finished  their  course  before  their  fellows, 
and  whose  resting-place  was  marked  only  by  little 
stone  heaps.  And  I saw  along  that  route  seve- 
ral skeletons  of  camels,  complete  or  partial,  not- 
withstanding the  doubt  that  has  been  often  ex- 
pressed as  to  the  existence,  on  the  desert  track, 
of  such  signs  of  giving  out  by  the  way.  At  one 
of  the  more  prominent  stopping- places  of  the 
Hajj  in  the  desert  for  rest  and  water,  the  ground 
for  an  extensive  circuit  was  trodden  down,  in 


The  Pilg7'image  Idea  m the  East. 


C 


proof  of  the  multitudes  of  pilgrims  who  had  made 
their  temporary  camp  there  year  after  year. 

As  I approached  Jerusalem  from  Hebron,  seven 
days  before  the  beginning  of  Holy  Week,  I saw 
all  along  the  way  pilgrims  journeying  toward  the 
Holy  City.  Outside  of  the  Jaffa  Gate,  and  just 
inside  also,  were  pilgrims  who  had  recently  ar- 
rived. The  open  place  in  front  of  the  Church 
of  the  Holy  Sepulcher  was  thronged  like  a Cairo 
bazaar  with  sight-seers,  and  with  various  sellers 
and  buyers  of  rosaries  and  crucifixes  and  relics 
and  amulets  and  piHures  and  colored  candles  and 
gold-flecked  incense  cakes,  and  glass  and  metal 
ornaments,  and  fruits  and  sweets. 

There  were  Syrians,  Turks,  Persians,  Russians, 
Egyptians,  Nubians,  Abyssinians,  Europeans,  and 
Americans  ; Greek  and  Latin  and  Maronite  and 
Armenian  and  Coptic  Christians  ; also  Muham- 
madans and  Jews — for  Jews  could  be  sight-seers 
and  trinket -sellers  even  though  they  were  not 
reverent  pilgrims  to  that  shrine.  Every  shade 
of  complexion  and  every  style  of  dress  were  repre- 
sented there.  Each  day  of  the  next  fortnight 
added  to  the  multitude,  with  no  lessening  of  it 
at  any  point. 


336  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

For  a week  after  reaching  Jerusalem  our 
party  had  its  tents  on  the  crown  of  the  Mount  of 
Olives,  under  the  very  walls  of  the  Chapel  of 
the  Ascension.  Pilgrims  in  an  almost  constant 
stream  were  coming  and  going  among  the  sa- 
cred sites  of  that  locality.  They  were  from  all 
parts  of  the  Eiast,  and  from  Europe  and  America 
as  well.  \"ery  many  of  them  were  Muhamma- 
dans ; for  the  Chapel  of  the  Ascension  is  at- 
tached to  a Muhammadan  mosk,  and  in  charge 
of  a darweesh,  but  the  larger  number  of  pilgrims 
were  Greek  Christians.  Inside  the  chapel  is  an 
indentation  in  the  rock,  said  to  be  a footprint 
of  Jesus,  made  at  the  moment  of  his  ascension. 
The  French  bishop  Arculf,  who  visited  this  spot 
as  a pilgrim  nearly  eleven  hundred  years  ago, 
says  that  then  the  prints  of  both  feet  were  to  be 
seen  in  the  dust  of  the  ground  within  the  church, 
“ and  although  the  earth  is  daily  carried  away 
by  believers,  yet  still  it  remains  as  before,  and 
retains  the  same  impression  of  the  feet.” 

“ Can  you  tell  me  where  I can  find  the  foot- 
prints of  Jesus?”  was  a question  asked  of  us  by 
the  pilgrims  to  that  site.  And  that  question  was 
easy  of  answer  by  us  : “The  footprints  of  Jesus 


The  Pilgrimage  Idea  m the  East. 


337 


are  to  be  found  wherever  his  story  is  known. 
You  can  not  only  look  clown  at  them,  but  you 
can  walk  in  them.  ‘For  hereunto  were  ye  called: 
because  Christ  also  suffered  for  you,  leaving  you 
an  example,  that  ye  should  follow  his  steps.’  ” ' 
As  the  old  CollecF  has  it:  “We  kiss  Thy  foot- 
steps when  we  love  Thy  ways,  when  we  humble 
ourselves  and  walk  in  Thy  paths.” 

On  the  Monday  of  Holy  Week  our  party  started 
northward.  Going  down  the  slope  of  the  Mount 
of  Olives,  we  passed  an  almost  unbroken  line 
of  pilgrims.  Some  were  clambering  toward  the 
Chapel  of  the  Ascension  ; others  were  kneeling 
at  the  Tomb  of  the  Virgin  ; yet  others  were  turn- 
ing aside  into  the  Garden  of  Gethsemane.  All 
parts  of  Syria,  Turkey,  Greece,  Lower  Egypt  and 
Upper,  were  represented  among  them.  The  men 
were  on  foot.  The  women  and  children  were  on 
donkeys,  or  in  baskets  swung  across  the  donkeys. 
In  some  instances  two  or  three  old  women  were 
in  a single  basket,  balanced,  of  course,  by  a like 
weieht  of  women  or  children  on  the  other  side 
of  the  overloaded  donkey. 

From  opposite  the  Damascus  Gate,  we  went 

* I Pet.  2 : 21. 

9'^ 


338  StiLclics  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

along  the  road  toward  Nazareth,  down  which  the 
parents  of  Jesus  came  “every  year  to  Jerusalem 
at  the  feast  of  the  passover,”^  — the  road  by 
which  he  probably  came  when  he  first  made  the 
journey  with  them  at  this  season  of  the  year. 
The  pilgrim  line  was  always  in  sight.  More  than 
one  lad  of  twelve  was  with  his  parents,  in  parties 
which  we  met  and  passed  that  clay.  We  saw  one 
stranger  overtake  a loitering  group  of  pilgrims, 
and  join  them  with  an  Eastern  greeting,  much 
as  might  have  been  the  manner  of  those  who, 
at  the  close  of  the  first  Easter,  “were  going 
that  very  day  to  a village  named  Emmaus,  which 
was  threescore  furlongs  from  Jerusalem.  And 
they  communed  with  each  other  of  all  these 
things  which  had  happened.  And  it  came  to 
pass,  while  they  communed  and  questioned  to- 
gether, that  Jesus  himself  drew  near,  and  went 
with  them.”^ 

The  wondering  question  of  those  travelers 
to  their  new  companion,  when  he  seemed  in 
ignorance  of  the  all-absorbing  theme  of  thought 
and  converse  among  the  Galileans  at  the  Pass- 
over  feast,  shows  that  he  and  they  were  counted 
^ Luke  2:41.  “ Luke  24:  13-1 5. 


The  Pilgrimage  Idea  in  the  East. 


339 


as  a part  of  the  great  pilgrim  host  of  then. 
“Dost  thou  alone  sojourn  in  Jerusalem  and 
not  know  the  things  which  are  come  to  pass 
there  in  these  days?”^  Art  thou  the  only  one 
of  the  pilgrims  to  the  Holy  City  who  knows 
nothing  of  the  great  event  of  this  year’s  Holy 
Week  ? 

Our  first  night’s  stop — we  could  not  call  it  rest 
— was  at  a spring  known  as  Robbers’  Fountain. 
All  through  the  night,  groups  or  caravans  of 
pilgrims  on  their  way  to  Jerusalem  were  coming 
into  that  wild  valley  from  the  north,  and  pushing 
up  and  out  again  southward  after  a brief  halt 
there  for  refreshing  at  the  spring.  Night  is  a 
favorite  time  for  traveling  in  Palestine  during 
the  warmer  season  of  the  year.  These  pilgrims 
were  sometimes  accompanied  by  musicians,  and 
always  seemed  bent  on  making  as  much  noise  as 
possible.  They  were  a good  deal  more  success- 
ful in  their  efforts,  so  far,  than  we  were  in  ours — 
at  getting  an  undisturbed  nap. 

The  pilgrimage  idea  was  an  old  one  long  be- 
fore the  days  of  our  Lord.  It  shows  itself,  but  it 
did  not  originate,  in  the  divine  command  at  the 
* Luke  24  : 18. 


340 


Studies  m Oriental  Social  Life. 


lips  of  the  great  lawgiver  to  Israel : “Three  times 
in  a year  shall  all  thy  males  appear  before  the 
Lord  thy  God  in  the  place  which  he  shall  choose  ; 
in  the  feast  of  unleavened  bread,  and  in  the  feast 
of  weeks,  and  in  the  feast  of  tabernacles  ; and 
they  shall  not  appear  before  the  Lord  empty.”  ^ 
Here  a pilgrimage  was  recognized  as  a duty  in- 
cumbent on  ever)'  household  head ; for  the  form 
of  the  command  implies  that  the  place  which  the 
Lord  should  choose  would  be  at  such  a distance 
from  many  homes  that  it  could  be  visited  by  all 
only  on  occasions,  and  at  the  cost  of  an  extended 
journey.  And  long  before  this  the  Hebrews  had 
known  of  the  Egy.ptian  pilgrimages  to  the  sacred 
sites  of  Bubastis  and  Busiris  and  Sais  and  Heli- 
opolis, including,  according  to  the  extravagant 
estimate  reported  by  Herodotus,  as  many  as 
seven  hundred  thousand  pilgrims  annually  at  the 
first-named  of  these  sites. 

It  would  seem  from  many  references  to  the 
matter  in  the  Bible,  and  from  the  place  given  to 
the  thought  in  outside  religions,  that  the  pil- 
grimage idea  represents  the  course  of  a child  of 
God  in  his  life’s  journey  through  a land  of  train- 


* Deut.  i6  : i6. 


The  Pilgrimage  Idea  in  the  East. 


341 


ing  toward  the  Father’s  house  beyond.  Thus 
when  God  would  gather  out  from  the  race  a 
peculiar  covenant  people,  he  called  its  progenitor 
Abraham  to  be  a pilgrim,  beginning  a journey 
the  end  of  which  he  could  not  yet  know.’^  And 
the  life  of  Abraham  was  one  of  continuous  pil- 
grimage. When,  again,  the  patriarch  Jacob  was 
asked  his  age  by  Pharaoh,  he  answered  by  a figure 
which  is  given  as  if  even  then  intelligible  to  all : 
“The  days  of  the  years  of  my  pilgrimage  are  an 
hundred  and  thirty  years  : few  and  evil  have  been 
the  days  of  the  years  of  my  life,  and  have  not 
attained  unto  the  days  of  the  years  of  the  life 
of  my  fathers  in  the  days  of  their  pilgrimage.” 
“Thy  statutes  have  been  my  songs  in  the 
house  of  my  pilgrimage,”  ^ says  the  Psalmist. 
His  exclamation,  rendered  in  our  version,  “I  had 
rather  be  a doorkeeper  in  the  house  of  my  God, 
than  to  dwell  in  the  tents  of  wickedness,”^  con- 
veys, in  the  original,  the  idea  of  one  who  has 
come  as  a glad  pilgrim  to  the  sandluary  en- 
trance, and  prefers  that  place  to  a more  luxu- 
rious abode  elsewhere ; as  if  it  were  to  be  para- 

* Gen.  12:1.  Gen.  47  : 9. 

^ Psa.  1 19  : 54.  * Psa.  84  : 10. 


342  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

phrased:  “I  choose  the  toilsome  pilgrim  life  of 
Abraham  toward  ‘the  city  which  hath  the  founda- 
tions,’^ rather  than  the  abode  of  Lot  in  the  ease- 
supplying  city  of  Sodom.” 

As  to  the  idea  of  the  Hajj  among  Muham- 
madans, Professor  Palmer  says  that  it  “is  a very 
ancient  institution,  and  one  which  , . . Moham- 
med could  not,  if  he  would,  have  abolished.” 
And  Sir  Richard  Burton  adds : “The  word  ‘ Hajj  ’ 
is  explained  by  Moslem  divines  to  mean  ‘ Kasd  ’ 
or  ‘aspiration,’  and  to  express  man’s  sentiment 
that  he  is  but  a wayfarer  on  earth,  wending  to- 
wards another  and  a nobler  world.  This  explains 
the  origin  and  the  belief  that  the  greater  the 
hardships  the  higher  will  be  the  reward  of  the 
pious  wanderer.  . . . Hence  it  is  that  pilgrimage 
is  common  to  all  old  faiths.” 

The  collection  of  sacred  psalms  (Psalms  120- 
134)  known  as  “ Songs  of  Degrees,”  or  “Songs 
of  the  Goings  Up,”  is  supposed  to  have  been 
compiled  for  the  Hebrew  pilgrims,  in  their  an- 
nual goings  up  to  Jerusalem  to  keep  holy  day 
before  the  Lord  in  his  temple.  Take,  for  ex- 
ample, the  second  of  these  psalms  : 


* Heb.  1 1 ; 10. 


^ Gen.  13  : 12. 


The  Pilgrimage  Idea  in  the  East. 


343 


“I  will  lift  up  mine  eyes  unto  the  mountains: 

From  whence  shall  my  help  come  ? 

My  help  cometh  from  the  Lord, 

Which  made  heaven  and  earth. 

He  will  not  suffer  thy  foot  to  be  moved : 

He  that  keepeth  thee  will  not  slumber. 

Behold,  he  that  keepeth  Israel 
Shall  neither  slumber  nor  sleep. 

The  Lord  is  thy  keeper  : 

The  Lord  is  thy  shade  upon  thy  right  hand. 

The  sun  shall  not  smite  thee  by  day, 

Nor  the  moon  by  night. 

The  Lord  shall  keep  thee  from  all  evil ; 

He  shall  keep  thy  soul. 

The  Lord  shall  keep  thy  going  out  and  thy  coming  in. 
From  this  time  forth  and  for  evermore.”  * 

As  Dr.  Samuel  Cox  says  ; “The  local  color  of 
this  charming  poem  is  rich  and  abundant.  The 
allusions  to  help  coming  from  over  the  moun- 
tains, to  the  watch  set  when  the  caravan  halted 
for  the  night,  to  sunstroke  and  moonstroke,  all 
carry  our  thoughts  to  the  East,  and  are  character- 
istically Oriental  in  their  tone.  The  best  English 
commentator  on  the  Psalms  leans  to  the  impres- 
sion that  this  was  ‘the  song  sung  by  the  caravan 
of  pilgrims  going  up  to  the  yearly  feasts,  when 
first  they  came  in  sight  of  the  mountains  on 
which  Jerusalem  stands.’  ” 

^ Psa.  I2I. 


344 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

As  if  to  make  it  clear  to  the  Israelites  that  the 
pilgrimage  idea  must  not  be  lost  sight  of  by 
those  who  lived  so  near  the  tabernacle  or  the 
temple  that  they  need  not  make  a journey  to 
reach  it,  the  third  feast  of  each  year  included  the 
going  out  of  all  the  people  to  dwell  in  booths,  or 
huts  of  boughs,  in  symbolism  of  the  pilgrim  life 
of  the  people  of  God.  “Ye  shall  dwell  in  booths 
seven  days  ; all  that  are  homeborn  in  Israel  shall 
dwell  in  booths  : that  your  generations  may  know 
that  I made  the  children  of  Israel  to  dwell  in 
booths,  when  I brought  them  out  of  the  land  of 
Egypt:  I am  the  Lord  your  God.”^ 

Of  the  three  great  feasts  of  Israel,  the  Feast 
of  Tabernacles  is  the  only  one  of  which  the 
symbolism  is  yet  unfulfilled.  And  did  not  these 
three  feasts  in  a peculiar  sense  symbolize,  or  rep- 
resent, the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost? 
Surely  the  Passover  was  fulfilled  in  Christ ; “ for 
our  passover  also  hath  been  sacrificed,  even 
Christ.”^  This  was  the  first  of  the  three  feasts. 
Pentecost^  came  next,  commemorating  the  giving 
of  the  Law  as  our  guide.  This  also  was  ful- 
filled by  the  coming  of  the  Holy  Spirit  to  guide 

* Lev.  23  ; 42,  43.  I Cor.  5 ; 7.  ^ Acts  2:1. 


The  Pilgrimage  Idea  in  the  East. 


345 


us  into  all  truth.  But  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles, 
which  commemorated  and  symbolized  the  pil- 
grim life  of  the  children  of  God  on  their  way  to 
the  Father’s  house,  is  not  yet  fulfilled  ; nor  can 
it  be  until  all  of  those  children  have  reached 
their  home.  There  is  a saying  among  the  Jews, 
that,  while  the  other  two  feasts  shall  be  fulfilled, 
the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  shall  never  cease  until 
all  things  are  accomplished. 

In  this  light,  there  is  a pregnant  meaning  to 
the  pilgrimage  idea,  as  it  shows  itself  in  every 
form  of  religion,  and  as  it  is  manifested  so  pecu- 
liarly at  Easter  season  in  the  Holy  Land.  It 
represents,  however  vaguely,  that  consciousness 
of  being  absent  from  the  Father’s  home  while 
yet  present  in  the  body. 

“ Here  in  the  body  pent, 

Absent  from  him  I roam  ; 

Yet  nightly  pitch  my  moving  tent 
A day’s  march  nearer  home.” 

The  writer  of  Hebrews,  recalling  the  long  line 
of  godly  witnesses  for  the  truth,  from  the  days 
of  righteous  Abel  to  the  successors  of  Stephen  in 
martyrdom,  declares  that  “ these  all  died  in  faith, 

. . . and  . . . confessed  that  they  were  strangers 


346 


Studies  m Oriental  Social  Life. 


and  pilgrims  on  the  earth.”  ^ And  Peter  ad- 
dresses us  all  in  the  exhortation,  “Beloved,  I be- 
seech you  as  sojourners  and  pilgrims,  to  abstain 
[in  your  pilgrimage  of  life]  from  fleshly  lusts, 
which  war  against  the  soul.”  ^ 

And  is  it  not  an  indication  of  the  universality 
of  this  idea,  that  the  one  religious  book  which 
comes  next  to  the  Bible  in  perennial  freshness 
as  a truthful  exhibit  of  Christian  experience 
among  English-speaking  peoples  is  the  “Pil- 
grim’s Progress  ” ? 

But  closely  connetbed  with  the  pilgrimage  idea 
is  the  moving  in  a circle,  from  east  to  west,  or 
in  the  course  of  the  sun,  around  a center  of 
sacred  interest.  This  also  would  seem  to  sym- 
bolize the  completing  of  an  earthly  course — mak- 
ing the  full  round  of  life. 

The  Hebrew  word  chag,  like  its  Arabic  equiva- 
lent, hajj,  represents  both  a festival  and  a pil- 
grimage circuit.  It  is  the  word  which  is  used  in 
the  request  of  Moses  to  Pharaoh  to  permit  the 
Hebrews  to  go  a “ three  days’  journey  into  the 
wilderness,”  to  “hold  a feast”  (a  chag).  or  to 
make  a series  of  circuits,  as  a religious  observ- 


‘ Heb.  11:13. 


^ I Pet.  2 ; II. 


The  Pilgrimage  Idea  in  the  East. 


347 


ance4  The  Feast  of  Tabernacles  '^  is  the  chag, 
or  hajj,  of  booths  or  tents.  And  when  the  He- 
brew pilgrim  band  had  reached  the  Promised 
Land  it  moved  in  formal  procession  across  the 
Jordan  bed,  following  the  ark  of  the  covenant,^ 
and  then,  having  compassed  the  city  of  Jericho 
six  days  in  succession,  on  the  seventh  day  it  com- 
passed the  city  seven  times,  until  “the  wall  fell 
down  flat,  so  that  the  people  went  up  into  the 
city,  every  man  straight  before  him;”^  and  the 
pilgrims  were  in  their  new  earthly  home. 

In  the  days  of  the  temple  worship,  the  priests 
were  accustomed  to  form  in  procession,  and  to 
make  the  circuit  of  the  altar,  on  every  one  of  the 
seven  days  of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles.  And 
on  the  seventh  day  they  made  that  circuit  seven 
times.  It  was  “on  the  last  day,  the  great  day 
of  the  feast,  ” while  the  procession,  following  the 
priest  who  had  brought  water  from  Siloam  to 
pour  it  out  in  libation  at  the  altar,  that  Jesus 
“stood  and  cried,  saying.  If  any  man  thirst,  let 
him  come  unto  me,  and  drink.”®  And  it  was  at 
that  same  feast  that  Jesus  said,  as  if  to  all  of 

^ Exod.  5 : 1-3 ; see  also  10  : 9.  ^ Lev.  33  : 36. 

® Josh.  3 : 3-6.  ^Josh.  6:15,  16,  20.  ^John  7 : 37. 


348 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


life’s  pilgrims,  “ He  that  followeth  me  shall  not 
walk  in  darkness,  but  shall  have  the  light  of 
life.”  1 

It  is  a custom  among  the  modern  Jews,  in  the 
West  as  in  the  East,  to  make  a sevenfold  circuit 
of  the  synagogue,  in  procession,  following  the 
sacred  roll,  on  the  day  after  the  close  of  the 
great  festival  season  of  the  year.  This  ceremony 
is  known  as  “Rejoicing  in  the  Law.” 

To  the  present  day  Christian  pilgrims  at  Jeru- 
salem, on  Easter-tide,  Greek  and  Roman  Catho- 
lic alike,  make  the  circuit  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher 
seven  times  in  succession,  at  first  slowly,  and  then 
in  increasingly  rapid  succession. 

In  the  Greek  Church,  in  Palestine  as  in  Russia, 
a newly  married  couple  make  together  a three- 
fold circuit  of  the  altar  before  which  they  have 
just  pledged  their  mutual  marriage  vows.  And 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  as  also  in  the 
English,  the  conventional  “processional”  circuit 
would  seem  to  be  a survival  of  the  symbolic  pil- 
grimage idea. 

The  Abbe  DuBois  tells  of  a custom,  at  a Hin- 
doo wedding,  of  the  bridegroom  taking  his  bride 
^ John  8 : I2. 


The  Pilgrimage  Idea  in  the  East. 


349 


by  the  hand  and  making  the  threefold  circuit 
with  her  of  the  fire  on  which  he  offers  the  sacri- 
fice of  the  “homam.”  This  would  seem  to  be 
symbolic  of  the  beginning  of  their  pilgrimage  of 
life  together. 

At  Meccah  all  the  pilgrims  from  abroad,  and 
all  the  residents  of  the  city,  must  make  at  certain 
times  a sevenfold  circuit  of  the  Ka'bah,  the  first 
three  circuits  being  made  slowly,  and  the  last 
four  on  a quick  trot,  in  a manner  similar  to  that 
of  the  Easter  pilgrims  to  the  Holy  Sepulcher  in 
Jerusalem.  Life’s  earlier  years  lag,  but  as  life 
goes  on  the  speed  of  the  years  accelerates.  The 
Arabs  of  the  Desert  of  Sinai  also  encircle,  some- 
what after  the  same  fashion,  the  ancient  tomb  of 
Neby  Saleh;  and  this  is  a part  of  the  common 
worship  at  the  welee,  or  tomb,  of  any  Arab  saint. 

Sir  Monier  Monier-Williams  says  of  Booddhist 
observances  in  India  and  elsewhere:  “One  com- 
mon way  of  showing  piety  is  by  walking  round 
temples,  monasteries,  stupas,  and  sacred  walls, 
from  east  to  west,  keeping  the  right  shoulder 
towards  them,  and  even  occasionally  measuring 
the  ground  with  the  extended  body.” 

M.  Hue  tells  of  the  same  custom  among  the 


350 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


Booddhists  of  Mongolia  and  Tibet.  Thousands 
of  pilgrims  from  China,  Tibet,  and  Mongolia, 
come  each  year  in  processions  to  sacred  lama- 
series, or  monasteries  of  the  Booddhist  lamas  ; 
and,  having  reached  their  destination,  they  cir- 
cumambulate the  lamasery  with  prostrations  in 
prayer  at  every  step  of  the  way.  “Sometimes 
the  number  of  devotees  performing  together  this 
painful  pilgrimage  is  perfectly  prodigious,”  says 
M.  Hue.  “They  follow  each  other,  in  Indian 
file,  along  a narrow  path  which  encircles  the  en- 
tire lamasery  and  its  appendant  buildings.  . . . 
\Miere  the  lamasery  is  of  any  extent,  the  devo- 
tees have  hard  work  to  get  through  the  ceremony 
in  the  course  of  a long  day.  . . . The  pilgrim- 
age must  be  performed  without  intermission — so 
stricdly  that  the  pilgrims  are  not  allowed  to  stop 
for  a moment,  even  to  take  a little  nourishment. 

. . . Each  prostration  must  be  perfect,  so  that 
the  body  shall  be  stretched  flat  along  the  ground 
and  the  forehead  touch  the  earth,  the  arms  beinor 
spread  out  before  you,  and  the  hands  joined  as  if 
in  prayer,” 

Here  \vould  seem  to  be  a representation  of 
life’s  pilgrimage,  in  its  persistency,  in  its  toilsome- 


The  PilgTimage  Idea  in  the  East. 


351 


ness,  and  in  its  prayerfulness.  “There  are  vari- 
ous modes  of  performing  the  pilgrimage  round 
a lamasery.  Some  pilgrims  do  not  prostrate 
themselves  at  all,  but  carry,  instead,  a load  of 
prayer-books,  the  exact  weight  of  which  is  pre- 
scribed by  the  Grand  Lama,  and  the  burden  of 
which  is  so  oppressive  at  times  that  you  see  old 
men,  women,  and  children  absolutely  staggering 
under  it.  When,  however,  they  have  successfully 
completed  the  circuit,  they  are  deemed  to  have 
recited  all  the  prayers  contained  in  the  books 
they  have  carried.” 

Mr.  Talcott  Williams,  describing  various  sur- 
vivals of  primitive  rites  and  customs  in  North 
Morocco,  says  of  the  “ local  pilgrimages  ” which 
he  observed  there:  “They  occur  all  over  the 
East ; but  I will  confess  to  a new  sensation  as  I 
was  told  of  the  annual  pilgrimage  to  the  shrine 
of  Abd  es-Salem  (Servant  of  Peace),  where  his 
descendant  lived  on  the  annual  offerings,  the  sons 
of  the  worthy  man  making  no  small  scandal  by 
their  grasping  avarice,  to  which  people  went  up 
— men,  women,  and  children — in  companies  of 
two  or  three  hundred,  and  which  broke  into  a 
solemn  intoned  chant  when  the  distant  shrine 


352  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

was  seen,  in  which  men  and  women  went  to  lay 
their  offerings  and  pray  for  children.  The  fakirs 
from  this  shrine  came  to  one  village  fair  I at- 
tended, and  compassed  it  with  a solemn  chant 
of  the  Moslem  creed  and  the  Fathah  or  opening 
chapter  of  the  Koran  ; and  as  I saw  them  pass 
around  with  their  banner  inscribed  with  the  sacred 
name,  and  heard  the  slow  rise  and  fall  of  their 
Gregorian  notes,  I felt  I might  be  listening  to 
sounds  as  old  as  the  march  of  priest  and  Levite 
in  the  desert.” 

There  are  vestiges  of  the  primitive  pilgrimage 
idea  in  surviving  customs  of  peoples  of  Europe 
and  America,  as  well  as  of  Africa  and  Asia.  Mrs. 
C.  F.  Gordon-Cumming,  in  her  sketches  of  life 
“ In  the  Hebrides,”  tells  of  such  traces  in  Iona. 
Speaking  of  the  old  time,  she  says  : “When  the 
dead  were  carried  ashore  in  the  Martyrs’  Bay, 
they  were  laid  on  the  green  hillock  of  Eala,  the 
Mound  of  the  Burden,  round  which  the  funeral 
company  thrice  marched  sunwise  in  solemn  proces- 
sion, as  they  had  been  wont  to  do  from  time 
immemorial,  in  common  with  many  races,  both 
ancient  and  modern,  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  I 
do  not  suppose  this  custom  is  even  now  wholly 


The  Pilgrimage  Idea  in  the  East.  353 

extintl,  for  even  on  the  more  advanced  mainland 
the  path  to  a churchyard  is  often  led  circuitously, 
so  as  to  ensure  the  corpse  being  carried  in  the 
more  orthodox  sunwise  course,  and  the  people 
strongly  oppose  any  short  cut,  which  would  inter- 
fere with  this  beneficial  circuit.” 

In  Philadelphia,  within  a comparatively  few 
years,  the  body  of  an  eminent  Israelite  was  borne 
in  procession  seven  times  round  the  synagogue 
before  being  removed  for  burial.  And  it  is  a 
common  sentiment,  in  different  parts  of  the  U nited 
States,  that  a body  ought  not  to  be  brought  out 
of  a church  by  the  same  aisle  that  it  was  borne 
along  on  its  entrance,  but  that,  in  some  way  at 
least,  a circuit  should  be  made  with  it. 

Even  the  games  of  children,  in  so  many  of 
which  are  survivals  of  primitive  customs,  include 
the  circuit  pilgrimage  idea. 

“ Here  we  go  round,  round,  round.” 

“ Here  we  go  round  the  mulberry  bush.” 

“ Ring  around  the  rosie.” 

Indeed,  it  would  seem  to  be  fair  to  infer  that 
the  love  of  the  formal  procession  and  circuit  at 
weddings,  at  funerals,  and  on  occasions  of  dis- 
play the  world  over,  is  but  a phase  of  this  idea, 

23 


354 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


which  would  give  renewed  expression  to  the 
thought  in  every  thoughtful  heart : 

“ I’m  a pilgrim,  and  I’m  a stranger; 

I can  tarry,  I can  tarr\’  but  a night.” 

“ So  runs  the  round  of  life  from  hour  to  hour.” 


AN  OUTLOOK  FROM  JACOB’S  WELL. 


No  spot  in  all  the  Holy  Land  was  more  lovely 
and  attractive  in  its  natural  scenery,  and  none 
was  richer  in  its  varied  associations  of  the  earlier 
and  the  later  history  of  the  peculiar  people  of  the 
Holy  Land,  than  that  region  which  came  within 
the  sweep  of  the  eyes  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  as  he 
sat  down  to  rest  by  the  well  which  the  patriarch 
Jacob  had  dug  in  the  field  that  he  bought  of 
the  sons  of  Hamor,  and  gave  to  his  loved  son 
Joseph.^ 


Josh.  24  : 32. 


355 


356  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

That  well  is  on  the  western  border  of  the  Plain 
of  Mukhna,  or  the  Plain  of  the  Cornfields,  where 
the  Valley  of  Shechem  opens  from  the  westward, 
between  the  mountains,  Ebal  on  the  north  and 
Gerizim  on  the  south,  into  the  great  caravan 
route  that  runs  northward  and  southward  be- 
tween the  Nile  and  the  Euphrates — as  the  high- 
way of  the  nations  from  the  far  East  to  the  ever- 
extending  West.  The  region  itself  is  still  the 
one  beautiful  spot  in  central  Palestine.  Away 
from  the  extended  fertile  plain,  with  its  signs  of 
varied  and  hopeful  cultivation,  there  sweeps  west- 
ward between  the  mountains  “ a valley  green 
with  grass,  gray  with  olives,  gardens  sloping 
down  on  every  side,  fresh  springs  rushing  down 
in  all  directions.”  Northward  the  snowy  summit 
of  Hermon  is  seen  in  the  far  distance — beyond 
the  hills  of  Ephraim,  which  skirt  this  plain.  East- 
ward are  the  hills  above  the  valley  of  the  Jordan, 
over  against  the  Land  of  Gilead,  and  southward, 
beyond  Shiloh,  are  the  hills  which  stand  round 
about  Jerusalem  northward. 

The  highway  which  was  then  the  direcd  route 
between  Judea  and  Galilee  (and  near  which  is 
the  well  of  Jacob)  was  one  of  the  roads  Avhich 


An  Outlook  from  Jacob' s Well. 


357 


Kedor-la’omer,^  the  Elamite  king,  sought  to  con- 
trol in  his  memorable  campaign — the  first  great 
campaign  of  recorded  history.  It  was  a road 
over  which  the  mightiest  rulers  of  Egypt  had 
passed  in  their  conquering  sway — from  the  days 
of  Thotmes  III.  and  Sety  I.  and  Rameses  II. 
down  to  Shishak  and  Necho  and  the  Ptolemies, 
and  along  which  Benhadad  and  Hazael  and 
Rezin  and  Tiglath-pileser  and  Sennacherib  and 
Shalmaneser  and  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  Alexan- 
der of  Macedon  also,  had  moved  in  their  marches 
of  invasion  and  conquest.  Yet  never  had  that 
road  felt  the  tread  of  so  mighty  a ruler  as  the 
way-worn  traveler  whose  tired  feet  rested  by  that 
well  that  day,  while  his  few  humble  followers  had 
turned  from  the  highway  into  a neighboring  city 
to  purchase  bread. 

The  Valley  of  Shechem,  in  full  sight  of  the 
well  of  Jacob,  was  a very  center,  both  geographi- 
cally and  historically,  of  the  Land  of  Promise. 
It  was  the  first  formal  resting-place  of  Abra- 
ham, in  Canaan,^  on  his  pilgrim  way  from  Chal- 
dea Egypt-ward.  There  Abraham  reared  the 
earliest  altar  in  all  that  land  to  Him  who  called 


* Gen.  14  : 1-7. 


^ Gen.  12:5. 


358  Siudics  in  On'enta/  Social  Life. 

him,  in  uniqueness,  his friend.”  ^ Jacob  made 
that  spot  his  home  also."  There  he  purchased 
a homestead  lot,  and,  of  course,  he  dug  a well 
there;  for  land  has  no  value  in  the  East  unless 
there  is  living  water  within  its  bounds,  at  its 
owner’s  control.  When  Joseph  died  in  a royal 
home  in  Egypt,  his  heart  looked  toward  Shechem 
for  a burial-site,  and  he  made  his  brethren  prom- 
ise to  carry  his  bones  thither  when  their  pilgrim 
days  were  over.  That  promise  they  made  good, 
after  strange  vicissitudes.^  In  that  valley,  ac- 
cording to  the  command  of  Moses,  the  whole 
land  was  formally  dedicated  to  the  God  of  Is- 
rael in  a solemn  assembly  of  the  people  under 
Joshua,'^  and  Shechem  itself  was  made  a city  of 
refuge.® 

There  again  the  people  met  from  time  to  time 
to  renew  their  covenant  vows  toward  Jehovah. 
There,  on  the  plain,  Abimelech,  the  first  claim- 
ant of  royal  honors  in  Israel,  was  declared  king 
in  the  days  of  the  judges  ;®  and  there,  from  one 
of  the  mountain  cliffs,  still  pointed  out,  his  brother 

* Isa.  41  : 8 : 2 Chron.  20  : 7 ; James  2 : 23.  Gen.  33  : 18. 

Gen.  50  : 24-26;  Exod.  13  : 19 ; Josh.  24  : 32. 

^ Josh.  24  : 1-28.  ® Josh.  20  ; 2,  7.  ® Judg.  9 : 6. 


All  Outlook  from  fa  cod's  Well. 


359 


Jotham  spoke  his  parable  against  this  brief-lived 
usurpation^ 

There  also,  after  the  days  of  royal  splendor 
under  David  and  Solomon  in  Jerusalem,  the 
whole  people  gathered  as  of  old  in  their  sacred 
trysting-place,  to  inaugurate  a successor  to  the 
wisest  of  their  monarchs  ; and  there  the  wise 
king’s  foolish  son  wrought  the  folly  that  divided 
for  all  time  the  kingdom  of  his  fathers.^  Then 
there  followed  the  days  of  Jeroboam  and  Ahab 
and  Jehu  and  Jehoash  and  Hoshea,  while  the 
words  of  Elijah  and  his  successors  rang  out  from 
time  to  time  on  the  air  of  that  mountain-girt  re- 
gion ; and  finally  the  temple,  rivaling  that  of 
restored  Jerusalem,  had  stood  for  two  centuries 
on  the  summit  of  Gerizim,  before  its  destrublion 
by  Hyrcanus. 

What  crowding  memories  of  the  varied  past, 
and  what  teeming  thoughts  of  the  possible  future, 
of  that  center  of  interest  to  the  descendants  of 
Israel,  must  have  burdened  the  dreamy  air  about 
the  well  of  Jacob,  as  Jesus  sat  there  by  himself, 
in  the  absence  of  his  disciples  ! 

As  Jesus  sat  thus  by  the  well,  there  came  a 

* Judg.  9 : 7-21.  ^ I Kings  12  : i ; 2 Chron.  10  : i. 


360  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

Samaritan  woman  to  draw  Avater  from  the  Avelld 
It  has  been  a puzzle  to  many  to  know  why  this 
woman  came  from  the  city  for  water  from  this 
well,  when  many  other  good  wells  were  nearer ; 
and  no  little  ingenuity  has  been  shown  in  the 
various  suggestions  of  her  possible  reasons  for  so 
coming.  But  the  text  does  not  say  that  she  came 
direcdly  from  the  city,  nor  would  it  be  natural  to 
suppose  that  she  did  so.  This  was  the  well  of 
the  cornfields,  dug  there  for  the  express  purpose 
of  providing  water  for  those  employed  in  the 
sowing  and  the  reaping  of  those  fields.  Women 
were  often  engaged  in  the  labor  of  the  fields,  or 
in  ministr)^  to  laborers  there,  and  this  Samaritan 
woman  seems  to  have  been  so  employed.  Com- 
monly, the  women  drew  water  for  the  men,  al- 
though, as  a special  favor,  it  was  said  by  Boaz  to 
Ruth,  when  she  gleaned  in  the  field  Avith  his 
maidens:  “When  thou  art  athirst,  go  unto  the 
A’essels,  and  drink  of  that  Avhich  the  young  men 
have  draAvn.”  ^ 

In  this  instance  the  Samaritan  Avoman  seems 
to  have  come  up  to  the  AA'ell  from  a remoter 
portion  of  the  great  grain-field,  to  draAv  Avater 
* John  4 : 5-14.  ’ Ruth  2 : 9. 


A}i  Outlook  from  Jacob's  Well.  361 

for  herself  or  for  those  to  whom  she  was  a 
helper.  It  is  even  mentioned  that  when  she  was 
prompted  to  return  to  her  home  for  a special 
purpose,  she  “ left  her  water  pot  ” — there  by  the 
well  in  the  field  where  it  was  needed — “ and  went 
away  [from  her  work]  into  the  city.”^  Why  it  is 
that  this  simple  explanation  of  a natural  incident 
in  an  Oriental  grain-field  has  escaped  the  notice  of 
commentators  so  generally,  is  in  itself  a mystery. 

Jesus  said  to  the  woman:  “Give  me  to  drink.” 
Her  answer  was  : “ How  is  it  that  thou,  being  a 
Jew,  askest  drink  of  me,  which  am  a Samaritan 
woman  ? ” ^ An  Oriental  would  not  as  a rule 
speak  to  a stranger  woman ; far  less  would  he 
ask  a drink  from  her.  In  our  day,  and  among  us, 
even  an  enemy  might  ask  or  receive  a drink  of 
water  without  fear  of  compromising  himself  or  his 
opponent ; but  not  so  in  the  East — in  the  olden 
time  or  now.  There,  the  giving  and  receiving  of 
a drink  of  water  is  the  seeking  and  the  making 
of  a covenant  of  hospitality,  with  all  that  that 
covenant  implies.  It  is  not,  indeed,  like  a cove- 
nant of  blood,  or  a covenant  of  salt,  indis- 
soluble ; but  it  is  like  the  covenant  of  bread- 


* John  4 : 28. 


*John  4 : 7,  9. 


362  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

sharing,  which  makes  a truce,  for  the  time  being, 
between  deadliest  enemies. 

Aboolfeda  tells,  for  example,  of  the  different 
receptions  awarded  by  Saladeen  to  the  king  of 
the  Franks  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  Prince 
Arnald  of  Caracca  on  the  other,  when  the  two 
Christian  leaders  were  received  in  his  tent  by 
the  vidlorious  Saracen,  after  the  battle  of  Hat- 
teen.  Saladeen  seated  the  Christian  king  by  his 
side,  and  gave  him  drink  cooled  with  snow. 
When  the  king,  having  tasted  it,  offered  it  also 
to  Prince  Arnald,  Saladeen  protested,  saying, 
“This  wretch  shall  not  drink  of  the  water  with 
my  permission,  in  which  there  would  be  safety 
to  him;”  and  then,  rising  up,  he  smote  off  the 
head  of  the  prince  with  his  own  sword. 

Again,  we  are  told,  that  when  Hormozan,  a 
Persian  ruler,  surrendered  to  the  khaleef  Omar, 
the  successor  of  Aboo  Bekr,  and  was  brought  a 
prisoner  into  the  presence  of  his  captor,  he  asked 
at  once  for  a drink.  “ Omar  asked  him  if  he 
were  thirsty.  ‘ No,’  he  said  ; ‘ I only  wish  to 
drink  in  your  presence,  so  that  I may  be  sure  of 
my  life.’  He  was  assured  that  he  might  rest  per- 
fectly secure  ; and  that  assurance  was  kept.” 


A7i  Outlook  from  Jacob's  Well.  363 

The  wonder  of  the  Samaritan  woman  was  that 
a Jew  should  seek,  by  asking  and  receiving  drink, 
to  make  a friendly  compadl  with  a member  of  a 
hostile  race.  Yet  Jesus  was  willing  to  show  that 
he  would  not  hold  himself  aloof  from  such  as 
she.  When  the  disciples  of  Jesus  had  returned  to 
the  well,  and  were  wondering  over  the  fact  that 
their  Master  was  in  conversation  there  with  a 
Samaritan  woman  concerning  the  holiest  truths 
of  their  religion,  Jesus  gave  them  a lesson  of  les- 
sons out  of  the  facds  of  the  great  grain-field 
about  them  there.  And  that  lesson  it  is  which 
all  the  followers  of  Jesus  have  reason  to  consider 
anew  to-day. 

In  Palestine,  neither  all  the  sowing  nor  all  the 
reaping  of  the  fields  is  done  at  one  and  the  same 
season.  As  soon  as  one  crop  is  out  of  the  ground, 
another  is  prepared  for.  Plowing  and  sowing 
follow  close  after  reaping  and  gleaning.  Different 
crops  require  different  lengths  of  time  for  their 
maturing  ; and,  as  a consequence,  the  planting 
for  one  crop  will  sometimes  be  going  on  while 
another  crop  near  it  is  not  yet  ready  for  the 
harvest.  As  soon  as  the  fields  are  cleared,  in  the 
midsummer  or  in  the  early  autumn,  the  ground  is 


364 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


plowed,  and  the  winter  wheat  or  some  other  grain 
is  sowed,  in  advance  of  the  rainy  season.  Again, 
between  the  early  and  the  latter  rains  of  the 
springtime  there  will  be  plowing,  and  the  sow- 
ing of  barley  or  oats  or  lentils  for  a later  crop. 

In  the  second  week  in  April,  I saw  on  the 
Plain  of  the  Cornfields,  not  far  from  Jacob’s  W’^ell, 
the  grain  already  well  ripened  toward  the  har- 
vest ; while  just  southward  of  that  region,  and 
again,  two  days  later,  just  northward  of  it,  I saw 
plowing  and  planting  going  on.  Indeed,  I might 
have  been  in  doubt,  from  my  own  observations, 
whether  that  were  the  time  of  seed-sowinof  or  of 

O 

harvest ; and  so  it  is  likely  to  have  been  in  the 
days  of  Jesus. 

Wdiether  this  were  the  springtime  or  the  early 
winter,  whether  it  were  at  noonday  or  at  even- 
tide, are  points  which  have  been  much  discussed 
in  connection  with  the  Gospel  narration  of  the 
visit  of  Jesus.  It  would  seem  most  natural,  from 
the  story  as  it  stands,  to  suppose  that  the  season 
was  the  springtime,  and  that  the  hour  was  noon- 
day : but,  however  that  may  be,  it  is  obvious  that 
there  were  within  the  eye-sweep  of  Jesus  and  his 
disciples  the  signs  of  seed-sowing  on  the  one 


An  Outlook  from  facob' s Well. 


365 


hand  and  of  ripening  harvest  on  the  other  ; and 
that  it  was  by  calling  attention  to  these  two  pro- 
cesses of  nature  in  so  close  proximity  of  time  and 
space  that  Jesus  taught  the  lesson  he  would  have 
his  disciples  there  receive. 

Pointing,  perhaps,  with  his  outstretched  hand, 
toward  the  sowers  in  the  field  for  whose  ministry 
the  Samaritan  woman  had  come  to  that  well  to 
draw  water,  he  said : “ Say  not  ye  [Would  ye  not 
say,  if  ye  were  to  judge  from  that  scene  only]. 
There  are  yet  four  months,  and  then  cometh  the 
harvest?  behold,  I say  unto  you.  Lift  up  your 
eyes,  and  look  on  the  fields  [and  here  he  may  have 
waved  his  hand  toward  the  ripening  fields  in  an- 
other direction],  that  they  are  white  already  un- 
to harvest.”  ^ And  by  those  words’ his  disciples 
were  shown  that  even  while  seed-sowing  for  one 
crop  was  going  on  in  the  natural  world,  there 
might  be  also  a making  ready  for  an  ingathering 
of  former  crops  ; so  that  sowing  and  reaping 
should  go  on  together.  Then  came  our  Lord’s 
application  of  this  fad:  from  nature’s  sphere. 

Here  were  sowers  of  spiritual  seed  starting  out 
into  the  world  with  a mission  to  make  ready  for 
'John  4:35. 


366  Studies  in  Oi'iental  Social  Life. 

a new  planting  of  the  fields  they  visited.  Yet 
those  very  fields  had  been  planted  by  other 
laborers  in  seasons  already  past ; and  there  was 
a harvest  work  of  the  earlier  crops  to  be  carried 
on  in  conjunction  with  the  new  planting. 

Long  before  these  days  there  had  been  truth 
taught  in  that  region,  even  by  the  rites  and  cere- 
monies on  Gerizim,  and  by  the  Avords  of  the  LaAv 
read  responsively  across  the  \"alley  of  Shechem 
under  Joshua,  and  by  the  loving  Avorship  of  Je- 
hovah there,  in  the  days  of  Jacob  and  his  fathers, 
and  by  such  teachings  as  Avere  represented  in 
the  spirit  and  service  of  Melchizedek,  the  neigh- 
boring kingly  priest  of  God  Most  High;  and 
noAv  the  day  had  come  for  the  gathering-in  of  a 
harvest  from  that  old-time  planting,  as  Avell  as 
for  neAV  seed-soAving  by  Jesus  and  his  disciples. 
“ For  herein  [in  this  Avinning  of  the  outside 
Samaritans  to  the  truth  as  the  truth  is  in  Jesus] 
is  the  saying  true.  One  soAveth,  and  another 
reapeth.  I sent  you  to  reap  that  Avhereon  ye 
haA^e  not  labored : others  have  labored,  and  a'c 
are  entered  into  their  labor.”  ^ 

The  disciples  of  Jesus  eA'^eryAvhere  are  to  realize 
Gohn  4:  37,  38. 


An  Outlook  from  facob's  Well. 


367 


that  Christianity  is  not  set  to  seed-sowing  alone, 
but  that  it  has  a mission  of  reaping  a harv'est  out 
of  all  the  truth-planting  of  the  ages.  God  did 
not  leave  himself  without  a witness  in  fields 
which,  until  to-day,  were  unvisited  by  Christian 
teachers.  He,  therefore,  who  enters  any  field, 
to  plant  there  the  best  of  seeds,  should  have  an 
eye  to  the  whitening  crop  in  that  very  field, 
which  marks  the  good  work  of  former  laborers 
known  to  God  alone.  Herein  is  that  saying 
true  ; “ Behold  the  days  come,  saith  the  Lord, 
that  the  plowman  shall  overtake  the  reaper,  and 
the  treader  of  grapes  him  that  soweth  seed.”  ^ 
And  herein  is  true  that  other  saying  also : “ So 
then  neither  is  he  that  planteth  anything,  neither 
he  that  watereth  [nor  yet  he  that  reapeth]  ; but 
God  that  giveth  the  increase.”  ^ 

There  is  no  form  of  religious  belief  which  has 
not  some  vestige  or  phase  of  truth  as  its  basis, 
however  that  measure  of  truth  may  be  overlaid 
with  error  or  obscured  by  evil  traditions.  Thus 
Brahmanism  starts  with  the  truth  of  the  spirit- 
uality of  God  ; ^ Booddhism  with  the  truth  of  a 
sin-cursed  world,  and  of  man  in  wretched  helpless- 
'■  Amos  9 : 13.  ^ i Cor.  3 : 7.  ®John  4 ; 24. 


368  St2idies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


ness;^  Zoroastrianism  with  the  truth  of  a con- 
stant contiicl;  between  good  and  evil,  light  and 
darkness  ;■  Confucianism  with  the  primal  superi- 
ority of  man  as  an  ideal  of  aspiration  in  life’s 
struggle  and  so  on  through  all  the  forms  of 
false  religion. 

As  saintly  Whittier  sings  : 

“ Truth  is  one : 

And,  in  all  lands  beneath  the  sun 
Whoso  hath  eyes  to  see  may  see 
The  tokens  of  its  unity.  . . . 

In  Vedic  verse,  in  dull  Koran, 

Are  messages  of  good  to  man  ; 

The  angels  to  our  Arj’an  sires 
Talked  by  the  earliest  household  fires: 

The  prophets  of  the  elder  day. 

The  slant-eyed  sages  of  Cathay, 

Read  not  the  riddle  all  amiss 
Of  higher  life  evolved  from  this. 


“ Nor  doth  it  lessen  what  he  taught. 
Or  make  the  gospel  Jesus  brought 
Less  precious,  that  his  lips  retold 
Some  portion  of  that  truth  of  old  ; 
Denying  not  the  proven  seers. 

The  tested  wisdom  of  the  years  ; 
Confirming  with  his  own  impress 
The  common  law  of  righteousness. 


^ Rom.  3 : 23. 


Eph.  6 : 12. 


^Gen.  I : 26;  Psa.  8 : 4,  5, 


An  Outlook  from  Jacob' s Well. 


369 


“ We  search  the  world  for  truth  ; we  cull 
The  good,  the  true,  the  beautiful. 

From  graven  stone  and  written  scroll. 

From  all  old  flower-fields  of  the  soul ; 

And,  weary  seekers  of  the  best. 

We  come  back  laden  from  our  quest. 

To  find  that  all  the  sages  said 
Is  in  the  Book  our  mothers  read. 

And  all  our  treasure  of  old  thought 
In  His  harmonious  fulness  wrought. 

Who  gathers  in  one  sheaf  complete 
The  scattered  blades  of  God’s  sown  wheat, — 
The  common  growth  that  maketh  good 
His  all-embracing  Fatherhood.” 


He  who  would  go  in  the  spirit  of  Christ  to 
non -Christians  as  a missionary  worker,  should 
begin  with  them  at  that  which  he  and  they  hold 
in  common  as  a sacred  truth,  in  order  that  he 
may  lead  them  onward  and  upward  to  the  truth 
which  includes  all  truths,  and  which  reconciles 
all  discrepancies  in  Him  who  is  “the  Way  and 
the  Truth  and  the  Life.”^  “The  hour  cometh, 
and  now  is,  when  the  true  worshippers  [everj^- 
where]  shall  worship  the  Father  in  spirit  and 
truth  : for  such  doth  the  Father  seek  to  be  his 
worshippers.”  ^ All  the  heart-yearnings,  and  all 

* John  14  : 6. 


24 


John  4 ; 23. 


370 


Studies  in  Ot'iental  Social  Life. 


the  soul-outreachings  toward  God  the  Father,  in 
all  the  ages,  can  find  their  satisfying  in  the  only- 
begotten  Son  of  God.  The  disciple  of  Jesus  is 
to  recognize  the  direction  of  all  these  strivings, 
in  order  to  aid  in  their  satisfying.  That  is  the 
lesson  of  an  outlook  from  the  well  of  Jacob. 


THE  SAMARITAN  PASSOVER. 


So  long  as  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  remained, 
the  Jews  went  thither  to  celebrate  the  passover 
feast.  But  when  the  temple  was  destroyed,  it 
was  no  longer  lawful  for  them  to  sacrifice  the 
paschal  lamb  ; for  the  command  was  explicit  : 
“Thou  mayest  not  sacrifice  the  passover  within 
any  of  thy  gates ; . . . but  at  the  place  which  the 
Lord  thy  God  shall  choose  to  cause  his  name  to 
dwell  in.”^  And  now  the  Jewish  observance  of 
that  feast  is  but  a partial  one,  in  the  household, 
with  a bit  of  roasted  lamb  to  represent  the  com- 
* Deut.  i6 : 5,  6. 


371 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


372 

manded  sacrifice.  In  only  one  place  in  all  the 
world  is  there  any  continuation  of  that  sacrifice  ; 
and  that  is  near  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Samaritan 
temple  on  Mount  Gerizim,  by  the  scanty  rem- 
nant of  the  Samaritan  people. 

Although  that  temple  was  unauthorized  by  Je- 
hovah, and  the  Samaritans  were  a mongrel  peo- 
ple, with  a mongrel  religion,^  so  many  sacred 
associations  cluster  around  Mount  Gerizim,  and 
the  connection  of  the  Samaritan  rites  and  cere- 
monies is  so  direCt  with  the  original  Hebrew 
ritual,  that  an  exceptional  interest  attaches  to 
this  one  vestige  of  the  ancient  passover  sacrifice, 
with  its  standing  witness  to  God’s  foreshadowed 
plan  of  salvation  by  the  blood  of  the  Lamb.^  The 
details  of  this  annual  sacrifice,  bringing  to  mind 
the  night  of  the  hurried  exodus  from  Egypt,  have 
been  several  times  described  by  modern  eye- 
witnesses ; but  to  each  fresh  observer  they  bring 
fresh  impressions,  which  justify  their  fresh  recital. 

On  an  afternoon  in  April,  with  two  traveling 
companions  and  our  trusty  dragoman,  I rode 
from  Jacob’s  Well  up  along  the  way  by  which 
the  disciples  of  Jesus  had  gone  to  the  city  of 
' I Kings  27  ; 8-12  ; 2 Kings  17  : 24-28.  ^ See  i Cor.  5 ; 7. 


The  Samaritan  Passover. 


j / j 

Sychar  to  purchase  food,  while  he  sat  by  the 
well  and  had  that  memorable  conversation  with 
the  woman  of  Samariad  At  our  right,  on  the 
north,  frowned  Ebal,  the  mount  of  cursing;'^  at 
our  left  was  Gerizim,  the  mount  of  blessing.'^ 
Before  us  was  Nablus,  the  modern  city  near  the 
site  of  Sychar,  and  yet  earlier  the  site  of  She- 
chem.  Passing  through  the  narrow  main  street 
of  the  walled  town,  and  out  of  the  western  gate, 
we  came  to  our  tents,  already  pitched  for  us, 
where  we  were  greeted  by  the  Rev.  Yohannah 
el-Karey,  a Christian  missionary  at  Nablus,  and 
told  that  we  were  just  in  season  for  the  pass- 
over  sacrifice  in  Gerizim.  A few  minutes  later 
found  us  ascending  the  mountain  under  his  kind 
escort. 

To  the  manifold  associations  and  traditions  of 
this  sacred  site  the  remaining  Samaritans  cling 
with  superstitious  veneration,  saying,  as  said  the 
woman  at  the  well,  “ Our  fathers  worshipped  in 
this  mountain  ; ” saying  even  more  than  this, — 
that  it  was  there  that  Melchizedek  met  and 
blessed  Abraham,^  and  that  there  Abraham  laid 

* See  John  4 : 5-26.  ^Deut.  17  : 29.  ®Deut.  ii  : 29. 

^ John  4 ; 20.  =Gen.  14  : 18,  19. 


374 


Studies  ill  Oriental  Soeial  Life. 


his  son  Isaac  on  the  altar  for  sacrifice  ; ^ saying 
this  with  such  earnestness  that  more  than  one 
Christian  scholar  has  been  swept  along  by  the 
strong  current  of  local  tradition  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  claim  of  the  Samaritan  on  these  points 
is  not  without  reasonable  foundation.  Nor  do  the 
Samaritans  stop  here  with  their  claims  for  Geri- 
zim.  They  deem  it  the  center  of  the  earth,  the 
highest  mountain  in  the  world — the  only  one  not 
covered  by  the  deluge,  the  place  where  Adam 
and  Noah  erecled  altars,  and  where  Jacob  had 
his  vision  of  the  heavenly  ladder.^  It  is  to  them 
the  house  of  God  and  the  gate  of  heaven. 

The  ruins  of  the  old  Samaritan  temple,  still  to 
be  seen  there,  include,  according  to  their  tradi- 
tion, the  twelve  stones  taken  up  out  of  the  bed 
of  the  Jordan,  by  the  command  of  Joshua,  and 
set  up  as  a memorial  of  the  miraculous  stoppage 
of  the  river’s  How  when  the  Israelites  entered 
Canaan,  after  their  fortv  vears  of  wandering  in 
the  desert.^ 

Less  than  a hundred  and  fifty  of  the  Samari- 
tans, all  told,  now  remain,  and  their  number  has 
not  materially  changed  for  many  years.  They 

'Gen.  22  ; 9,  10.  ^ Gen.  28  : 12.  ^Josh.  4 ; 1-9. 


The  Samaritan  Passover. 


375 


live  in  Nablus,  but  on  the  fourteenth  day  of  their 
month  Nisan — at  a time  corresponding  to  our 
Passion  Week — they  leave  their  homes,  and  take 
themselves  to  the  summit  of  Gerizim,  where  they 
pitch  their  tents,  family  by  family,  at  a spot  a 
little  west  of  the  temple  ruins,  and  on  somewhat 
lower  ground,  for  the  celebration  of  the  passover 
feast.  It  was  there  that  we  found  them  as  we 
reached  the  mountain  top. 

It  was  near  the  close  of  day.  All  was  ready 
for  the  sacrificial  services.  Between  the  temple 
ruins  and  the  tents  two  fires  were  burning  : the 
first  in  a trench,  within  a low-walled  enclosure  at 
the  place  of  sacrifice,  for  the  heating  of  water  in 
two  huge  caldrons  or  kettles  for  scalding  the 
dead  lambs  ; the  other  at  a little  distance  from 
this  and  outside  the  enclosure,  In  a great  oven  or 
pit.  some  seven  or  eight  feet  deep  and  three  or 
four  across  it,  stoned  up  inside  from  the  bottom, 
for  the  roasting  of  the  lambs.  Within  the  limits 
of  the  enclosure  the  congregation  had  gathered 
for  worship. 

The  high-priest,  with  a white  turban,  and  in  a 
pearl-colored  silk  surplice,  knelt  on  a scarlet  rug 
before  a small  stone  bench  or  desk,  facing  the 


376  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

temple  site  eastward.  Two  priests  were  back  of 
him.  His  children  and  the  children  of  the  assist- 
ing priests  were  with  their  fathers.  The  men 
and  children  of  the  congregation  (the  women 
remaining  in  their  tents)  were  in  a semicircle 
back  of  the  priests,  also  facing  the  temple  site. 
At  the  right  of  this  semicircle  were  seven  men 
ready  to  bring  the  prepared  lambs  to  slaughter. 
Their  dress  was  a simple  white  shirt  or  tunic, 
with  white  under-drawers.  They  were  called 
“the  sacrificers,”  or  slayers.  Seven  lambs  ap- 
pointed to  slaughter  were  just  before  the  high- 
priest  as  he  knelt. 

It  was  about  twenty  minutes  before  sundown 
that  the  kneeling  high-priest  began  the  service 
by  an  invocation,  imploring  God’s  acceptance  of 
this  sacrifice  according  to  his  word,  and  a con- 
tinuance of  the  blessing  on  his  people,  accord- 
ing to  his  dealings  with  their  fathers  the  patri- 
archs of  old.  Then  came  a recital  of  the  story 
of  the  exodus,  and  of  the  institution  of  this 
sacrifice,  in  which  the  people  joined  with  the 
high-priest.  The  service  was  intoned,  some- 
what like  the  peculiar,  singing  of  the  Eg)’p- 
tians,  or  the  notes  of  the  wailing  darweeshes. 


The  Samaritan  Passover. 


377 


At  the  first  mention  of  the  name  of  Jehovah, 
all  prostrated  themselves,  as  the  Israelites  did 
when  they  heard  that  God  would  bring  them 
out  of  Egyptd  Then  all  rose  and  stood  in 
silent  prayer — in  most  impressive  silence.  At 
every  subsequent  mention  of  Jehovah’s  name  the 
people  put  their  hands  to  their  faces,  as  if  cover- 
ing their  faces  in  the  presence  of  God.  In  token 
of  emphasis,  as  they  recited,  they  repeatedly 
stretched  out  their  hands  with  upturned  palms, 
in  Oriental  demonstrativeness.  In  every  move- 
ment the  children  followed  their  parents,  whom 
they  watched  closely  as  the  service  proceeded. 

The  service  of  worship  must  continue  until 
ablual  sundown.  As  it  went  on,  arrangements 
were  in  progress  for  the  sacrifice.  The  lambs 
were  carefully  examined  separately  by  an  assist- 
ant of  the  high-priest,  to  see  that  they  were  cere- 
monially worthy — “without  blemish.”^  The  un- 
leavened bread  and  bitter  herbs  were  brought  in 
on  a straw  mat,  or  platter,  and  laid  before  the 
high-priest.  When  the  sunlight  on  the  temple 
site  above  him  showed  that  sunset  was  just  at 

* See  Exod.  4:31;  12  : 27. 

^ Exod.  12:5;  Lev.  9:3;  14  : 10 ; 23  : 12  ; Num.  29  ; 2. 


378  Studies  m Oriental  Social  Life. 

hand,  the  high-priest  stepped  on  to  the  stone 
bench  which  had  been  his  reading-desk,  and 
looked  intently  toward  the  west,  watching  the 
sun  for  its  slow  dipping  in  the  blue  waters  of  the 
Mediterranean  beyond  the  Plain  of  Sharon.  He 
was  still  reciting  the  stor)'  of  the  first  passover, 
and  the  people  were  intoning  with  him  more 
earnestly  than  before.  The  seven  lambs  were 
led  by  attendants  to  the  place  of  sacrifice,  around 
the  caldron  fire,  and  held  firmly  there,  without 
a single  bleating  cry.  The  flashing  knives  for 
their  slaying  were  tested  by  the  attendants. 
The  interest  in  the  service  was  intensified  mo- 
ment by  moment. 

At  precisely  sundown — “between  the  two 
evenings” — the  high-priest  gave  the  signal  for 
the  sacrifice  by  repeating  the  words  of  the  origi- 
nal command  to  Moses:  “And  the  whole  as- 
sembly of  the  congregation  of  the  children  of 
Israel  shall  kill  it  at  even.”^  Instantly  two  per- 
sons at  each  lamb  struggled  for  the  privilege 
of  killing  the  lamb.  The  high-priest  was  at  his 
desk,  some  thirty  or  forty  feet  from  the  place  of 
sacrifice,  where  the  designated  “slayers”  were 


1 Exod.  12:6. 


The  Samaritan  Passover, 


379 


already  gathered.  Throwing  off  his  silken  sur- 
plice, he  sprang  to  the  place  of  slaughter,  and  so 
quick  and  agile  was  he  that  he  killed  four  of  the 
seven  lambs  himself.  The  lambs  were  thrown 
on  their  sides,  and  their  throats  cut  with  a single 
stroke — nearly  severing  the  head  from  the  body. 
The  spurting  blood  was  caught  in  basins,  and 
the  children’s  foreheads  were  marked  with  it, — 
a straight  line  up  and  down  between  the  eyes. 
The  tents  also  were  at  once  sprinkled  with  the 
fresh  blood,  above  their  entrance  way. 

At  the  bloody  sight  of  the  slaughtered  lambs, 
some  of  the  children,  who  had  borne  a part  in 
the  service  up  to  this  point  so  heartily,  began  to 
sob  and  to  cry  aloud,  which  added  to  the  excite- 
ment of  the  strange  scene.  Then  came  an  out- 
burst of  general  rejoicing  and  mutual  congratu- 
lations. It  was  “the  beginning  of  months”^  to 
that  people — a new  year’s  service  of  thanksgiv- 
ing. It  was  like  the  exchanges  of  greetings  in  a 
New  Year’s  morning  prayer-meeting,  only  far 
more  demonstrative. 

All  embraced  one  another  most  heartily,  kiss- 
ing on  the  cheek  again  and  again,  except  in 
* See  Num.  lo : lo  ; 28:11. 


380  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

the  case  of  the  high-priest  and  of  the  more  ven- 
erable patriarchs,  whose  hands  instead  of  their 
cheeks  were  kissed  by  all.  It  was  a scene  of  un- 
mistakable delight  in  the  memories  and  privi- 
leges and  hopes  of  the  hour.  Then  it  was  that 
the  startled  children  could  say  to  their  parents, 
“ What  mean  ye  by  this  service  ? ” and  that  the 
glad-hearted  parents  could  answer  them,  “It  is 
the  sacrifice  of  the  Lord’s  passover,  who  passed 
over  the  houses  of  the  children  of  Israel  in 
Egypt,  when  he  smote  the  Egyptians,  and  de- 
livered our  houses.”^ 

And  now  the  slaughtered  lambs  were  to  be 
made  ready  for  the  oven.  Scalding  water  was 
thrown  on  them,  to  loosen  their  fleeces.  They 
were  not  skinned,  but  the  wool  was  pulled  from 
them  by  busy  fingers,  hot  water  being  added 
from  time  to  time  as  was  needful.  Then  the 
lambs  were  opened,  their  entrails  were  taken  out, 
and  these,  together  with  their  wool,  were  laid  on 
the  fire  and  burned.  The  prepared  lambs  were 
each  run  through  lengthwise  by  a sharpened 
stake  or  spit  of  from  eight  to  ten  feet  long. 
Their  heads  were  still  on,  and  their  legs  also, 


Exod.  12  : 26,  27. 


The  Samaritan  Passover. 


38^ 

except  the  right  foreleg,  which  belongs  to  the 
priest.  All  this  took  about  an  hour  and  a half 
from  the  time  of  sacrificing.  Meanwhile,  as  be- 
fore, the  enclosure  where  the  services  were  in 
progress  was  sacredly  guarded  from  the  intrusion 
of  strangers,  although  outside  observers  were 
permitted  to  approach  the  low  wall,  or  even  to 
stand  upon  it,  and  watch  the  ceremonies. 

At  a new  signal  from  the  high-priest,  the  seven 
spitted  lambs  were  borne  from  the  place  of  sacri- 
fice to  the  place  of  roasting,  and  arranged  around 
the  oven,  at  the  bottom  of  which  the  fire  was 
burning  brightly.  Again  brief  services  of  prayer 
and  recitation  were  intoned,  and  at  another  sig- 
nal the  seven  lambs  were  lifted  and  simultane- 
ously thrust  into  the  oven,  the  sharp  stakes  being 
forced  into  the  oven-bottom  to  hold  them  upright. 
A grating,  or  hurdle,  of  green  twigs  was  laid 
over  the  oven-mouth,  fresh  boughs  were  laid  on 
this,  and  earth  was  heaped  above  all  as  an  effe6l- 
ual  cover.  There  the  lambs  were  left  to  roast 
for  three  or  four  hours. 

The  high-priest,  meanwhile,  retired  to  his 
spacious  tent,  and  we  were  courteously  welcomed 
there  as  his  guests.  We  passed  in  under  the 


382  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

blood-sprinkled  doorway,  and  were  seated,  two 
on  rich  rugs  and  two  on  a scarlet  divan,  in  the 
family  group,  which  included  his  young  wife,  and 
their  three  children,  and  his  mother,  who,  ac- 
cording to  Oriental  custom,  was  treated  with 
marked  consideration.  The  Samaritan  high- 
priest  at  that  time  was  named  Jacob  Aaron 
(Ya’koob  Haroon).  He  was  a man  seemingly  not 
above  thirty-five  years  of  age,  with  a pleasant  face 
and  a full  dark  beard.  He  freely  answered  every 
question  I asked  him  about  the  ceremonies  he 
was  conducting,  as  I made  the  notes  for  this  writ- 
ing. He  gave  us  also  of  the  “ bitter  herbs,” 
leaves  of  a kind  of  dandelion,  to  taste  ; for  a 
foreigner  may  share  the  bitterness  of  the  pass- 
over  feast,  while  he  can  have  no  taste  of  the 
paschal  lamb.  The  blood  above  the  doorway 
was  deemed  a protection  to  all  who  were  within 
that  consecrated  home. 

While  the  high-priest  and  many  others  rested 
in  their  tents,  there  were  those  who  watched  and 
worshiped  outside.  It  seemed  to  be  a season  of 
general  rejoicing,  like  that  of  an  Oriental  wed- 
dinm  Yet  there  were  some  who  did  not  leave  the 

o 

sacred  enclosure,  but  continued  there,  facing  the 


The  Sainai'itan  Passover. 


temple  site,  and  praying  demonstratively.  All 
who  were  to  partake  of  the  passover  must  have 
fasted  since  the  day  before,  until  they  should 
partake  first  of  the  unleavened  bread  and  bitter 
herbs  after  the  new  year  was  fairly  ushered  in. 

Suddenly,  just  before  midnight,  there  was  a 
cry  that  the  lambs  were  now  ready  ; and  all  who 
had  rested  in  their  tents  were  quickly  astir. 
Then  there  was  a hurrying  from  the  tents  to  the 
place  of  assembling.  The  high-priest  was  now 
clad  in  a plain  white  robe,  fastened  about  the 
waist  with  a coarse  girdle,  with  slippers  on  his 
feet  and  a long  staff  in  his  hand.^  All  who  joined 
him  were  similarly  clad.  Heavy  clouds  had  gath- 
ered, the  sky  was  wholly  overcast,  and  rain  was 
falling.  At  the  still-closed  oven  there  was  a brief 
service  of  worship,  in  the  flickering  light  of  the 
still-burning  sacrificial  fire. 

The  earth  was  removed  from  the  oven’s  cover, 
and  the  hurdle  itself  was  lifted  off.  All  signs  of 
fire  were  gone,  and  the  oven’s  mouth  was  dark 
as  the  night.  One  by  one  the  stakes  were  up- 
lifted, and  the  roast  meat  was  stripped  from  them 
into  large  straw  mats  or  baskets  at  hand  for  the 


' Exod.  12 : II. 


384  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

purpose.  Portions  of  meat  had  fallen  to  the 
oven  bottom.  These  must  be  rescued,  that  noth- 
ing of  it  might  be  lost.  One  man  after  another 
was  lowered  by  his  fellows  into  the  heated  oven, 
to  gather  up  as  much  of  it  as  he  could  in  the  few 
seconds  he  could  exist  there.  At  length  all  was 
taken  out,  and  was  fairly  in  the  baskets.  These 
baskets  were  carried  within  the  hollowed  enclos- 
ure, and  laid  in  a line  not  far  from  the  place  of 
sacrifice.  On  either  side  of  them  the  people  took 
their  places  for  a share  in  the  feast. 

At  this  moment  there  was  a lull  in  the  storm. 
The  clouds  broke  away,  and  the  full  moon — for 
of  course  it  was  the  night  of  the  full  moon — 
shone  out  on  that  weird  scene  on  the  summit  of 
Gerizim.  There  crouched  the  girded  and  shod 
pilgrims, — not  standing,  as  in  olden  time,^  but  sit- 
ting or  crouching  in  Oriental  style, — the  last  sur- 
viving celebrants  of  the  sacrificial  feast  which 
Moses  instituted,  at  the  command  of  God,  on  that 
memorable  night  of  deliverance  from  the  angel 
of  death  in  the  land  of  Eg)^pt,  more  than  thirty 
centuries  ago.  The  whole  story  of  the  passover 
never  seemed  so  real  before.  The  men  ate  in 
1 2 Chron.  35  : 5,  6. 


The  Samaritan  Passover. 


385 


haste.  Portions  were  taken  to  the  women  in 
their  tents.  Whatever  remained  of  the  lamb — 
meat  or  bone — was  carefully  gathered  up  and 
burned  in  the  fire.  “Ye  shall  let  nothing  of  it 
remain  until  the  morning;  but  that  which  re- 
maineth  of  it  until  the  morning  ye  shall  burn 
with  fire.”  ^ 

After  the  feast,  prayers  were  continued  by  the 
Samaritans  until  the  break  of  day,  when  all  re- 
tired to  their  tents, — not  to  their  homes  in  Na- 
blus, as  Dean  Stanley  supposed  ; for  although 
the  command  was  “Thou  shalt  turn  in  the  morn- 
ing, and  go  unto  thy  tents,”  the  day  thus  be- 
gun is  a day  of  holy  convocation,  the  first  of  the 
seven  days’  feast  of  unleavened  bread. ^ The 
first  day  of  that  feast  and  the  day  following  it 
are  observed  as  a sabbath,  and  during  all  its 
days  the  Samaritans  remain  at  their  mountain 
encampment. 

And  in  the  early  morning,  in  the  renewed 
storm  of  rain  and  hail,  we  found  our  way  down 
the  slope  of  Gerizim  to  our  tents  at  its  western 
base,  with  a new  sense  of  the  truth  that  “the  law 


* Exod.  12  : 10. 

* See  2 Chron.  30 : 13,  21  ; 35:17;  Ezra  6:22;  Ezek.  45:21. 

25 


386  Studies  in  Oi'iental  Social  Life. 

having  a shadow  of  the  good  things  to  come,  not 
the  very  imaore  of  the  thino-s,  they  can  never  with 
the  same  sacrifices  year  by  year,  which  they  offer 
continually,  make  perfeCl;  them  that  draw  nigh  ” ' 
— “ a shadow  of  the  things  to  come ; but  the  body 
is  Christ’s.”  ^ 

* Heb.  10  : I.  ^ Col.  2 : 17. 


LESSONS  OF  THE  WILDERNESS. 


The  Old  Testament  has  been  called  the  Soul’s 
Picture  Book — God’s  picture  book  for  the  teach- 
ing of  his  children.  Both  the  history  and  the  pre- 
cepts of  the  Old  Testament  are  given  largely  in 
pictures,  strongly  drawn,  clearly  defined  pidtures, 
the  lessons  of  which  are  for  all  peoples  and  for 
all  times. 

One  of  the  more  prominent  and  more  fre- 
quently repeated  pictures  of  the  Old  Testament 
is  “The  Wilderness.”  This  picture  appears  over 
and  over  again,  under  varjdng  designations  and 

387 


388  Studies  ill  Oriental  Social  Life. 

with  varying  accessories ; but  it  is  wellnigh  always 
the  same  wilderness,  and  it  is  to  illustrate  or  to 
enforce  the  same  great  lessons. 

“ The  wilderness  of  Beersheba;”^  “ the  wilder- 
ness of  Paran;”^  “the  wilderness  of  the  Red 
Sea;”^  “ the  wilderness  of  Etham;”"*  “the  wil- 
derness of  Shur  ; ” ^ “the  wilderness  of  Sin;”® 
“the  wilderness  of  Zin  ; ” ^ “the  wilderness  of 
Sinai  “ the  wilderness  of  Kadesh  “the  wil- 
derness;”^® the  “desert  land  “the  waste  howl- 
ing wilderness “ “the  great  and  terrible  wilder- 
ness, wherein  were  fiery  serpents  and  scorpions, 
and  thirsty  ground  where  was  no  water,”  — 
all  these  are  but  parts,  or  but  different  descrip- 
tions, of  the  one  great  desert  of  Arabia  Petraea, 
including  the  region  between  the  two  arms  of  the 
Red  Sea,  and  extending  northward  to  Canaan  or 
Palestine. 

It  was  there  that  poor  Hagar^®  wandered,  with 
her  disowned  son,  fainting  with  thirst,  finding 
God  nearest  when  he  seemed  farthest  away.  It 
was  there  that  Hagar’s  son  IshmaeP^  grew  up  to 

’Gen.  21  : 14.  ^Gen.  21:21.  ^Exod.  13  : 18.  ^Xum.  33:8. 

^Exod.  15:22.  ®Exod.  i6:i.  ’Num.  13:21;  *Exod.  19:1. 

®Psa.  29:8.  ‘“Exod.  3:1.  ”Deut.  32:10.  ’^Deut.  8:15. 

Gen.  21  : 14-21.  ’’Gen.  16:12. 


Lessons  of  the  Wilderness. 


389 


sturdy  manhood  and  became  a roving  hunter,  the 
promised  progenitor  of  a separate  and  lawless 
people.  It  was  there  that  Moses, ^ having  left 
the  luxuries  of  an  Egyptian  palace^  and  having 
graduated  from  the  highest  school  of  human  wis- 
dom,^ passed  forty  years  of  quiet  training  for 
his  mighty  work  of  lawgiver  and  leader  to  God’s 
peculiar  people  ; feeding  his  flock  in  “ the  back 
[the  western  side]  of  the  wilderness,”^  and  finally 
seeing  the  light  of  God’s  presence  in  the  thorny 
sunt,  or  sin,  or  sina  bush,^  from  which  the  penin- 
sula is  thought  to  have  taken  its  name.  It  was 
there  that  the  children  of  Israel  led  a nomadic  life 
“for  forty  years,  to  humble  them  and  to  prove 
them  ; to  show  what  was  in  their  heart,  and 
whether  they  would  keep  God’s  commandments 
or  no.”  ® It  was  there  that  the  Lord  himself  came 
down  on  the  mountain  top,  and  declared  the  law 
which  was  for  all  time^ — “the  word  which  he 
commanded  to  a thousand  generations.”  * 

It  was  there  again,  that,  in  the  days  of  apos- 
tate Israel,  the  hunted  and  heroic  prophet  Elijah 
sought  a refuge  in  his  flight  from  the  Jehovah- 

• Exod.  2:15.  ^ Heb.  11:25  ^ ^.cts  7 : 22. 

* Exod.  3:1.  ^ Exod.  3:2.  ® Deut.  8 : 2. 

’Exod.  19:20.  ®Psa.  105:8. 


390 


Studies  i)i  Oriental  Social  Life. 


hating  Jezebel  ; and  it, was  there  that  an  angel 
awakened  him  from  his  tired  sleep  under  a wide- 
stretching  retem  shrub  (such  as  gives  noontide 
shelter  to  many  a weary  child  of  the  desert  to- 
day), and  fed  him  with  heaven-sent  food,  in  the 
strength  of  which  he  went  forty  days  and  nights, 
while  God  gave  him  lessons  of  rebuke  and  coun- 
sel and  encouras^ement.  in  sights  and  sounds  such 
as  have  never  been  seen  and  heard  elsewhere 
than  there  from  the  beginning  of  daysd 

And  there  is  ground  for  the  belief  that  it  was 
in  that  same  wilderness  of  Arabia  that  Jesus  of 
Nazareth  was  led  up  of  the  Spirit  to  be  tempted 
of  the  Devil, in  those  fearful  forty  days  and 
nights  of  spiritual  trial  of  which  so  much  is 
hinted  to  us,  beyond  the  little  that  is  described. 
And  we  know  that  the  Apostle  Paul,  with  all  his 
rabbinical  lore  and  his  religious  zeal,  and  with 
the  special  revelation  to  him  of  the  risen  and 
glorified  Saviour,  was  not  yet  counted  ready  for 
his  pre-eminent  mission  in  the  preaching  of 
righteousness  by  faith  in  Christ  to  all  the  ends 
of  the  earth,  until  he  also  had  had  his  “perils  in 
the  wilderness  ” ^ by  a visit  to  “ Arabia.”  * 

‘ I Kings  19  : 1-14.  ^ Matt.  4:1.  ^2Cor.  ii:25.  * Gal.  1:17. 


Lessons  of  the  Wilelerness.  391 

A wonderful  wilderness  that ! What  are  its 
lessons  to  you  and  to  me  to-day? 

We  have  no  need  of  drawing  on  our  fancy  for 
the  teachings  of  this  wilderness  piedure  in  the 
Soul’s  Piclure  Book.  The  inspired  text  makes 
them  plain  beyond  a peradventure ; and  a per- 
sonal examination  of  the  region  portrayed  only 
brings  out  the  same  lessons  more  vividly,  and 
impresses  them  indelibly. 

Arabia  stands  between  Egypt  and  Canaan. 
These  three  lands  are  typical, — typical  in  the  his- 
tory of  God’s  ancient  people,  and  typical  in  the 
history  of  every  individual  child  of  God.  Egypt 
is  the  soul’s  land  of  bondage — the  bondage  of 
sin  and  sensed  Canaan  is  the  soul’s  land  of 
promise — a land  of  rest  by  faith. Arabia  is  the 
soul’s  training-school,^  the  land  of  preparation 
by  trial  and  teaching  for  the  privileges  and  en- 
joyments of  the  spiritual  Canaan.  Every  soul 

‘ Exod.  13  : 14 : 20  : 2 ; Deut.  5:6;  6 : 12 ; 8 : 14 ; 13:5;  Josh. 
24:  17  ; Judg.  6 : 8 ; 2 Kings  16:21  ; Isa.  19 : 1-18  ; Ezek.  29:6-12; 
Rev.  11:8. 

^ Exod.  3 : 7,  8 ; Deut.  i : 7,  8,  21  ; 3 : 24-28  ; 6 : 3-12  ; 8 : 7-10; 
II  : 10-15;  Heb.  3:8-11,  16-18  ; 4 : I -10. 

^ Exod.  2 : 1 1-22;  3:1-6;  I Kings  19  : 1-18  ; Gal.  i : 1-17.  See 
also  Deut.  8 : 1-6,  15,  16;  Gal.  4 : 22-26. 


392  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

that  would  pass  from  the  land  of  its  sensuous  en- 
thralment to  the  land  of  its  promised  inheritance 
must  needs  go  through  the  land  of  its  training 
and  instruction,  there  to  learn  lessons  which  can 
be  taught  impressively  only  in  the  fadls  and  ex- 
periences of  “that  great  and  terrible  wilderness.” 

It  is  in  the  land  of  discipline  and  trial  that 
man  learns  his  littleness  and  his  needs,  and  is 
impressed  with  a sense  of  God’s  majesty,  near- 
ness, and  love.  These  lessons  are  taught  in  the 
wilderness  as  they  cannot  be  taught  in  the  land 
of  indulgence  or  of  rest. 

There  is  something  awe-inspiring  in  the  natural 
scenery  of  the  Arabian  desert.  That  desert  is 
by  no  means,  as  some  might  imagine,  an  exten- 
sive and  monotonous  sand  plain.  It  is  rather  a 
wild  mountain  wilderness  than  a wilderness  plain. 
It  is  a vast  rolling  prairie  of  mountain  and  hill 
and  valley.  Its  lower  portion  is,  indeed,  such  an 
aggregation  of  mountains  that  it  seems  rather 
an  “infinite  complication  of  jagged  peaks  and 
varied  ridges”  than  a cluster  of  separate  moun- 
tains. Of  this  portion  it  has  been  said  poeti- 
cally, that  “ it  would  seem  as  if  Arabia  Petraea 
had  once  been  an  ocean  of  lava,  and  that  while 


Lessons  of  the  Wilderness. 


393 


its  waves  were  running  literally  mountains  high, 
it  was  commanded  suddenly  to  stand  still.” 

The  wilderness  has,  it  is  true,  its  watercourses 
and  springs,  and  its  trees  and  shrubs  and  flowers ; 
but  all  these  are  merely  incidental  to  the  wilder- 
ness as  a wilderness, — a wilderness  over  which 
man  never  had,  nor  ever  can  have,  the  mastery  ; 
and  which  in  its  divinely  ordered  diversity  and 
gracefulness  of  material  and  arrangement,  and  in 
the  magnitude  of  its  proportions,  sets  at  mockery 
man’s  highest  attainments  of  strength  and  taste 
and  skill. 

V^ariety  and  beauty  are  found  in  the  very  sand 
of  the  desert  plains  and  hills.  Sometimes  this 
sand  glares  in  chalky  whiteness ; again  it  glistens 
and  sparkles  in  silvery  mica  and  quartz  ; yet 
again  it  is  of  golden  yellow.  The  bare  hills, 
which  often  shut  one  in,  and  among  the  shifting 
passes  of  which  one  must  wind  and  clamber  for 
days  together,  are  now  white,  now  yellow  or 
orange,  now  red  or  pink,  now  olive-green,  now 
brown  or  black ; then  they  show  all  these  hues, 
and  others  combined. 

These  hills  rise  like  vast  temples,  pillared  and 
chambered  mysteriously  ; they  tower  like  great 


394 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


cathedrals  with  graceful  pinnacles  and  turrets  ; 
they  open  and  make  way  for  finished  amphi- 
theaters,— amphitheaters  as  well  defined  as  the 
Roman  Colosseum,  but  vaster  far  ; they  mount 
like  lofty  pyramids  of  different-colored  strata  ; 
they  are  uplifted  in  the  form  of  huge  sarcophagi. 
At  one  point  they  show  massive  walls,  as  of 
blocks  of  stone  in  regular  courses ; at  another 
they  close  together  as  if  for  military  defense, 
leaving  only  a narrow  defile  with  rocky  ramparts 
rising  eight  hundred  feet  or  more  above  the 
roadway.  And  so  they  exhibit  the  vaster  pat- 
terns of  all  the  vastest  works  of  man — as  from 
the  hand  of  God  alone,  with  no  sign  of  man’s 
hand  in  their  construction. 

None  of  the  mountains,  any  more  than  the 
hills,  are  verdure-clad.  Thev  have  been  char- 
acterized  as  “the  Alps  unclothed,”  and  their 
mighty  forms  are  upreared  in  naked  grandeur, 
ridge  upon  ridge  and  crag  upon  crag,  from  the 
vast  flint-covered  plains  at  their  rugged  bases  to 
the  jagged  peaks  of  their  loftiest  summits. 

“ Shoulder  and  shelf,  red  slope  and  icy  horn, 

Riven  ravine  and  splintered  precipice. 

Lead  climbing  thought  higher  and  higher,  until 
They  seem  to  stand  in  heaven  and  speak  with  God.” 


Lessons  of  the  Wilderness. 


395 


Mountain  upon  mountain  in  that  wild  and  sea- 
girt region  stands  to-day  as  all  stood  in  creation’s 
dawning.  It  is  the  primitive  formation  that  we 
see  there  : red  feldspar,  purple  porphyry,  black 
hornblende,  green  diorite,  crystal  quartz,  gray 
gneiss,  as  they  glowed  and  glistened  “when  the 
morning  stars  sang  together,  and  all  the  sons 
of  God  shouted  for  joy.”  ^ They  have  never 
changed  meantime,  nor  has  man  the  power  to 
change  them. 

How  impressive  to  the  natural  sense  must 
have  been  the  lessons  of  the  wilderness  to  the 
Hebrews,  as  they  came  from  Egypt  toward  the 
“ mount  of  God  ” ^ in  the  desert  of  Sinai ! As  they 
turned  from  the  Red  Sea,  after  their  rest  at  Elim, 
the  scenery  about  them  grew  wilder.  The  crags 
and  bluffs  were  bolder.  The  foot-hills  of  the 
great  central  mountain  range  of  the  peninsula 
had  to  be  crossed.  There  were  towering  hills  in 
startling  contrasts  of  color  on  every  side.  The 
way  led  through  rugged  defiles  and  vast  amphi- 
theaters, and  over  one  lofty  mountain  pass  which 
gave  a final  view  of  the  sea  they  had  left,  and  of 
the  forsaken  Egypt  beyond  it.  They  had  come 


‘Job  38:7. 


“ See  Gen.  22  : 14  ; Exod.  3:1;  18:5. 


396  Studies  in  Oidcntal  Social  Life. 

out  from  a land  which  had  no  equal  in  the  gran- 
deur and  magnificence  of  its  pyramids,  its  palaces, 
and  its  temples.  Its  people  and  its  deities  had 
rested  their  claim  to  reverence  on  the  surpassing 
glory  of  these  earthly  structures  and  their  adorn- 
ings ! And  now  these  wanderers  from  Eg  ypt 
found  themselves  surrounded  by  such  natural 
pyramids  and  temples  and  obelisks  as  made  the 
works  of  Gheezeh  and  Karnak  and  On  and  Zoan 
the  merest  playthings  of  an  hour.  The  brightest 
colors  on  the  walls  of  temple  or  tomb  at  Luxor, 
Philae,  Aboo  Simbel,  Saqqarah,  and  Beni  Hassan, 
were  paled  by  contrast  with  the  glowing  hues  of 
the  mountains  and  the  hills  among  which  the 
Hebrews  found  their  winding  way.  Nothing  that 
they  had  ever  seen  approached  the  sight  that  was 
now  before  their  eyes. 

And  as  they  passed  on  from  day  to  day,  seeing 
new  wonders  of  nature,  and  finding  the  grandeur 
of  the  mountain  scenery  growing  with  each  hour, 
until  the  magnificent  five-peaked  summit  of  Ser- 
bal,  and  again  loftier  summits  beyond  it,  rose 
commandingly  before  them,  would  it  be  strange 
if  the  feeling  of  their  hearts  found  expression  in 
the  cry  of  Moses,  their  divinely  sent  leader  : 


Lessons  of  the  Wilderness. 


397 


“Jehovah,  thou  hast  been  our  dwelling-place 
In  all  generations. 

Before  the  mountains  were  brought  forth, 

Or  ever  thou  hadst  formed  the  earth  and  the  world. 

Even  from  everlasting  to  everlasting,  thou  art  God”  ?' 

What  were  the  sancluaries  of  the  many  gods  of 
Egypt  in  comparison  with  the  vast  natural  tem- 
ple of  the  great  I AM,"  the  outer  corridors  of 
which  they  were  now  traversing  in  order  to  meet 
him  in  the  place  which  he  had  said  was  “holy 
ground”  And  the  experience  of  the  Hebrews 
is  the  experience  of  every  traveler  in  this  wilder- 
ness to-day,  as  to  its  impressiveness  and  its  practi- 
cal lessons. 

The  very  silence  in  those  mountain  stillnesses 
is  oppressively  eloquent — 

“ A silence  as  if  God  in  heaven  were  still. 

And  meditating  some  new  wonder ; ” 

and  any  breaking  of  that  silence  is  not  less  elo- 
quent, to  remind  man  of  his  littleness  before  God. 
The  loneliness  of  the  region,  the  nakedness  of  the 
sheer  granite  walls,  and  a peculiar  atmospheric 
condition,  combine  to  give  a prominence  to  the 
human  voice  which  makes  its  very  use  a rever- 
^Psa.  90  : I,  2.  ^ Exod.  3 : 14.  ®Exod.  3 : 5. 


398 


Studies  in  Oriental  Soeial  Life. 

beratins^  rebuke  to  the  intruder  who  has  ven- 
tured  it.  It  is  as  though  one  were  speaking  in 
a vast  glass  bell,  his  voice  ringing  back  to  him 
from  every  side. 

Deeply  cut  inscriptions  are  seen  at  the  en- 
trance of  cavernous  mines, — inscriptions  showing 
that  Egyptians  worked  those  mines  in  the  days 
of  Snefru  and  Cheops,  builders  of  the  first  great 
pyramids  ; inscriptions  which  were  already  dark- 
ened by  the  changes  of  a thousand  years  when 
M OSes  read  their  familiar  writing  as  he  led  his 
father-in-law’s  fiocks  to  feed  along  their  front.^ 
But  those  inscriptions  only  suggest  how  many 
venerations  of  the  wisest  and  stronvest  sons  of 

o 

men  have  sought  the  treasures  of  those  moun- 
tains, and  have  come  and  gone  over  those  desert 
wastes,  without  the  possibility  of  making  that 
region  other  than  it  is,  and  was,  and  is  to  be,  a 
“ vreat  and  terrible  wilderness.” 

o 

It  is  not  as  when  one  moves  among  the  ruins 
of  a former  civilization,  now  a wilderness  but  once 
a place  of  teeming  life  ; nor  is  it  as  when  one 
visits  a region  yet  unsought  by  man,  but  which 
may  be  rescued  from  its  desolateness.  Here, 


* Exod.  3:1. 


399 


Lessons  of  the  JViMerness. 

save  in  one  or  two  utterly  exceptional  spots,  man 
never  has  been,  nor  ever  can  be,  a dweller,  ex- 
cept as  a pilgrim,  a fugitive,  or  an  explorer.  This 
is  God’s  region,  not  man’s. 

Bright -colored  flowers,  beautiful  flowers  in 
varied  form  and  hue  and  fragrance,  spring  up 
startlingly  out  of  the  crystal  sand,  and  from 
among  the  spear-head  flints  ; but  these  give  no 
sign  of  man’s  presence,  nor  encourage  it.  They 
are  not  there  by  cultivation  ; nor  could  cultiva- 
tion promote  their  growth  in  such  a soil.  They 
only  show  what  God  can  do — anywhere.  And 
the  same  is  true  of  the  scanty  and  scattered  trees 
and  shrubs  of  the  desert.  They  are  there  be- 
cause God  is  there,  not  because  man  is  or  has 
been  there. 

Then  again  there  are  great  stretches  of  bald 
desert,  of  waste  howling  wilderness,  of  burning 
sand  under  a burning  sky. 

“ All  around 
To  the  bound 

Of  the  vast  horizon’s  round 
All  sand,  sand,  sand  ; 

All  burning,  glaring  sand. 

Not  a sound. 

All  around. 


400  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

Save  the  padded  beat  and  bound 
Of  the  camel  on  the  sand, 

Of  the  feet  of  the  camel  on  the  sand. 

Not  a bird  is  in  the  air, 

Though  the  sun  with  burning  stare 
Is  prj'ing  ever)' where, 

O'er  the  yellow  thirsty  desert,  so  desolately 
grand.”  * 

And  there  are  flint-covered  plains  bounded  by 
fire-blackened  hills,  at  the  foot  and  along  the 
sides  of  which  volcanic  slag  is  scattered  and 
heaped  as  if  all  the  furnaces  of  earth  had  thrown 
their  refuse  there  for  centuries.  Hissing  ser- 
pents and  crawling  lizards  are  the  chief  signs  of 
life  in  such  regions  as  this  ; and  blinding  sand- 
storms  and  the  deceitful  mirage  are  its  bewilder- 
ing accessories. 

To  move  on  through  the  mountain  ranges,  and 
among  the  winding  hills,  and  over  the  flint  plains 
and  sand  wastes,  of  this  “ great  and  terrible 
wilderness”  for  days  and  weeks  together,  with 
scorching  flesh  and  parching  lips,  seeing  so  much 
of  the  might  of  God,  and  so  little  of  man  save 
his  helplessness,  forces  on  the  traveler  a sense 
of  his  dependence  and  littleness,  and  brings  him 


' \V.  \\’.  Stors'. 


Lessons  of  the  Wilderness. 


401 


to  cry  with  the  Bed'ween  : “ Alldhn  akbar  Id  ildha 
ill'  alldli,” — “Only  God  is  great.  There  is  no 
God  but  God.” 

The  Arabian  desert  proffers  in  itself  no  suffi- 
ciency for  the  support  of  human  life  ; and  this 
very  lack  brings  to  a traveler  there  a peculiar 
sense  of  human  needs.  You  must,  at  all  events, 
face  such  of  your  needs  as  you  are  called  to  pro- 
vide against  before  starting  on  your  journey. 
There  are  no  houses  of  entertainment  along  the 
way.  You  cannot  hope  to  find  even  a Bed'wy 
camp  to  rest  in  at  night.  Nor  are  you  sure  of  a 
retem-bush  or  a turfa-shrub  to  shield  you  from 
the  glare  of  noonday.  You  must  carry  tents  or 
be  without  shelter. 

You  must  also  carry  a supply  of  water,  in 
wooden  casks  or  in  leathern  sacks, — “bottles,” 
the  Bible  calls  them  ; and  you  never  so  realize 
your  constant  need  of  water  as  when  your  scanty 
stock  of  it  is  failing,  and  you  cannot  safely  use 
enough  of  it  to  moisten  freely  your  parching 
throat.  All  the  food  you  are  to  live  on  you  must 
bring  from  outside,  and  you  are  surprised  to  find 
how  much  food  you  require,  and  how  many  camels 

to  carry  your  food  and  water  and  tents,  for  even 

26 


402 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


a thirty  days’  stretch  across  the  desert.  To  see 
your  caravan  made  ready  for  you,  and  to  learn 
that  it  is  as  small  as  will  meet  your  necessities, 
forces  the  thought,  “I  never  knew  before  that  I 
had  so  many  needs.” 

You  need  special  guidance  as  well  as  supplies. 
Moses  realized  this  when  he  entreated  Hobab, 
his  brother-in-law,  to  be  a guide  to  the  Israelites 
on  their  journey  from  Sinai  to  Canaan  : “Leave 
us  not,  I pray  thee  ; forasmuch  as  thou  knowest 
how  we  are  to  encamp  in  the  wilderness,  and 
thou  shalt  be  to  us  instead  of  eyes.”^  You  must 
have  a skilled  dragoman — a man  familiar  with 
the  desert  wants  and  the  desert  ways — to  make 
intelligent  provision  for  your  necessities,  and  to 
guide  you  on  your  course. 

And  you  must  have  prote(5lion  as  well  as  guid- 
ance. The  most  venturesome  dragoman  dares  not 
attempt  to  guide  a party  over  the  desert  except 
under  the  guardianship  of  the  local  shaykh  of 
the  Arab  tribe  whose  territor}^  he  traverses.  At 
each  new  stretch  of  the  desert  you  must  have 
the  protedlion  and  company  of  a new  shaykh. 
“ If  thy  presence  go  not  with  me,  carry  us  not 


^ Num.  lo  ; 10-32. 


Lessons  of  the  Wilderness. 


403 


up  hence  ! ” ^ was  a fitting  cry  of  Moses,  as  he 
thought  of  his  mission  of  guiding  the  Israelites 
through  Jehovah’s  domain  of  the  “great  and 
terrible  wilderness.” 

Yet  with  the  sense  of  man’s  littleness  and 
needs,  and  of  God’s  majesty,  coming  in  the  les- 
sons of  the  wilderness,  the  proofs  of  God’s  loving 
nearness  are  about  and  above  the  traveler. 

Nowhere  else  in  all  the  world  do  the  heavens 
seem  more  impressive,  more  glorious  with  the 
immediate  presence  of  their  Creator,  than  at 
night  in  the  lonely  desert,  where  their  blue  vault 
comes  down  on  every  side  to  touch  the  horizon 
of  the  boundless  sea  of  sand  ; 

“In  full-orbed  glory  yonder  moon  divine 
Rolls  through  the  dark-blue  depths. 

Beneath  her  steady  ray 
The  desert-circle  spreads, 

Like  the  round  ocean,  girdled  with  the  sky.” 

Then,  indeed,  you  seem  face  to  face  with  God, 
and  God’s  love  shines  toward  you  in  the  soft 
light  of  his  stars. 

“ The  heavens  declare  the  glory  of  God ; 

And  the  firmament  showeth  his  handywork.”  “ 


‘ Exod.  33  : 15. 


^Psa.  19  : I. 


404  Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 

And  the  awe-impressed  observer,  in  the  desert, 
of  the  divine  handiwork  above  and  around  him 
exclaims,  in  reverence  and  gratitude  : 

“When  I consider  thy  heavens,  the  work  of  thy  fingers, 

The  moon  and  the  stars,  which  thou  hast  ordained ; 

What  is  man  that  thou  art  mindful  of  him  ? 

And  the  son  of  man  that  thou  visitest  him  ? 

For  thou  hast  made  him  but  little  lower  than  God, 

And  crownest  him  with  glory  and  honor. 

O Lord,  our  Lord, 

How  excellent  is  thy  name  in  all  the  earth ! ” * 

God’s  love  shines  out  there  also  in  the  beautiful 
flowers  which  start  up  in  varied  shape  and  color 
from  among  the  flints  and  out  of  the  sand,  as  if 
to  speak  cheering  words  to  the  traveler,  who 
might  doubt  whether  God’s  curse  had  not  rested 
on  all  that  region.  Flowers  nowhere  tell  of  God’s 
love  more  eloquently  than  in  the  desert,  where 
that  mission  seems  their  only  one. 

So,  again,  it  is  with  the  occasional  springs  and 
wells  of  water  in  the  desert.  The  ver^^  fabl  that 
they  are  so  few,  and,  from  the  appearance  of 
the  country,  so  unlooked  for,  helps  the  thirsting 
traveler  to  realize  that  it  is  God’s  love  which  has 


* Psa.  8 ; 3-9. 


Lessons  of  the  Wilderness. 


405 


provided  them  at  all;  “which  [has]  turned  the 
rock  into  a pool  of  water,  the  flint  into  a foun- 
tain of  waters  ; ” ^ which  makes  in  “ the  wilder- 
ness a pool  of  water,  and  [in]  the  dry  land 
springs  of  water.”  ^ Every  spring  or  pool  in  the 
desert  seems  hardly  less  truly  a loving  gift  of 
God  than  was  the  water  from  the  smitten  rock  at 
Rephidim^  or  at  Kadesh.^ 

The  Bed'wy  dweller  in,  or  passer  over,  the 
desert,  seems  to  realize  in  a peculiar  degree  the 
ever-present  love  and  the  unfailing  protedlion 
and  ministry  of  God.  He  calls  himself,  in  his 
nomad  life,  the  “guest  of  God,”  and  he  welcomes 
gladly  every  stranger  pilgrim  as  his  brother  wan- 
derer in  God’s  domain,  and  invites  him  to  a share 
in  the  free  gifts  of  their  common  Father. 

Striking  his  “house  of  hair  ” in  the  early  morn- 
ing, the  Bed'wy  gathers  up  all  his  earthly  belong- 
ings, and  with  his  wife  and  children  starts  out  on 
another  stage  of  pilgrimage,  to  seek  a temporary 
rest  where  the  night  shall  find  him;  and  so  he 
lives  from  day  to  day  in  unwavering  trust  in,  and 
as  a constant  witness  to,  the  Divine  love  that 


* Psa.  1 14  : 8. 
®Exod.  17  : 1-6. 


^ Isa.  41  : 18. 
^Num.  20  : II. 


4o6 


Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life. 


never  fails  nor  falters.  The  water  springs  out 
from  the  desert  for  the  quenching  of  his  thirst, 
and  the  scanty  food  of  the  desert  supplies  his 
hunger ; and  his  safety  and  his  sustenance  are 
alike  proofs  of  his  Father’s  love.  He  has  here 
no  “continuing  city,”^  but,  like  the  Father  of  the 
Faithful,  he  is  a sojourner  in  a land  not  his  own, 
dwelling  in  tents  like  Isaac  and  Jacob,  looking 
forward  to  an  abode  “ in  the  city  which  hath  the 
foundations,  whose  builder  and  maker  is  God.”^ 
Only  God’s  love  could  make  such  a life  tolerable, 
and  only  in  the  desert  is  it  a reality. 

Even  the  great,  ungainly,  grotesque  camel  is  a 
livingf  witness  to  God’s  love  in  the  wilderness. 
What  but  that  love  could  have  designed  such  a 
creature  for  such  a region  ? Even  its  seeming 
malformations  all  have  their  special  adaptedness 
to  the  special  necessities  of  the  wilderness.  Its 
broad,  spongy,  shapeless  foot  fits  the  sand  and 
the  flint,  to  steady  the  tread  where  a hoof  would 
sink,  or  crack,  or  stumble.  Its  ugly  hump  holds 
a pack-saddle  in  place  as  no  girth  would  do  it  in 
the  wild  mountain  passes  which  it  must  clamber 
and  descend  ; and  that  hump  is  its  reserve  sup- 
•Heb.  13:  14.  “Heb.  ii  : 8-10. 


Lessons  of  the  Wilderness. 


407 


ply  of  life-nourishment  in  the  desert.  A more 
shapely  or  graceful  neck  or  lip  would  be  less 
suited  to  reach  after  and  to  catch  at  the  scanty 
herbage  along  its  path  as  it  journeys — its  chief 
mode  of  desert  feeding.  If  its  limbs  or  its  joints 
or  its  hide  were  like  any  other  creature’s,  or  if  it 
lacked  its  own  unique  stomach-cistern,  it  could 
never  fill  the  place  or  do  the  work  in  the  wilder- 
ness to  which  it  is  now  so  wonderfully  adapted 
by  the  wonderful  love  of  God. 

So,  in  the  desert  itself,  in  its  produ<5lions  and 
accessories,  and  in  the  chara6leristics  and  ways 
of  its  inhabitants,  there  are  lessons  of  the  needs 
and  the  dependence  of  man,  and  of  the  greatness 
and  the  love  of  God,  which  cannot  be  ignored 
there,  however  they  might  be  ignored  elsewhere. 
They  stand  out  in  the  greater  prominence  and 
impressiveness  because  of  the  desolateness  and 
dreariness  of  their  surroundings,  and  the  mind 
of  the  dweller  there  is  better  prepared  to  per- 
ceive and  gratefully  to  acknowledge  them. 

And  these  lessons  of  the  wilderness  are  for  us 
all,  in  our  earthly  pilgrimage. 

“ The  path  of  life  we  walk  to-day 

Is  strange  as  that  the  Hebrews  trod  ; 


4o8  Studies  in  Oj'iental  Social  Life. 

We  need  the  shadowing  rock  as  they, — 
We  need,  like  them,  the  guides  of  God. 

" God  send  his  angels.  Cloud  and  Fire, 

To  lead  us  o’er  the  desert  sand  ! 

God  give  our  hearts  their  long  desire. 

His  shadow  in  a wear)-  land  ! " 


INDEXES. 


wr 


TOPICAL  INDEX. 


Aahmes  - Xefertari,  queen  - dowager, 

251- 

Aaron,  house  of,  112. 

Aaron,  Jacob,  Samaritan  high-priest, 
382. 

Abd  es-Salem,  shrine  of,  351. 

Abderrahman,  mourning  over,  157  f. 

Abdominal  responses,  265. 

Abel  as  pilgrim,  345  f. 

Abigail  and  David,  63. 

Abimelech  made  king  of  Israel,  358. 

Abimelech's  covenant  with  Isaac,  108. 

Abishag  and  Adonijah,  63. 

Ablutions  and  postures,  266. 

Abner  and  Joab,  130  f. 

Aboo  Bekr,  mention  of,  362. 

Aboo  Simbel,  temples  and  tombs  at, 
396. 

Aboolfeda  : cited,  362. 

Abraham : and  Isaac,  12 ; his  gift  to 
Rebekah,  22 ; references  to,  77, 140, 
22:,  239,  264 ; tomb  of,  195  ; chil- 
dren of,”  241  ; his  old  home,  257  f. ; 
his  pilgrim  life,  341  f.,  406;  his  first 
resting-place  in  Canaan,  357  ; friend 
of  God,  357  f. ; blessed  by  Melchise- 
dek,  373  ; offering  up  Isaac,  373  f. ; 
dwelling  in  tents,  406. 

Absalom,  214  f , 225. 

Abyssinia;  reference  to,  81,  111;  pre- 
paring the  way  in,  226  f. ; pilgrims 
from,  335. 

Achsah  promised  in  marriage,  12. 

Acre  and  Sidon,  pasha  of,  115. 

Adabazar,  incident  in,  115  f. 

Adam,  tradition  of,  at  Gerizim,  374. 

Adonijah  and  .Abishag,  63. 

Adonis.  Venus  lamenting  over,  197. 

Affej  tribes  in  Babylonia,  326. 

Africa:  hospitality  in,  118-120;  food 
for  dead  in,  176  ; burial  customs  in. 


176  f.  ; reference  to,  222  f. ; sur- 
vivals of  pilgrimage  in,  352. 

Ahab,  214,  359. 

Alden,  John,  as  ” go-between,”  23. 

“Alderman,"  meaning  of,  243. 

Alexander,  Grand  Duke,  preparing 
the  way  for,  217  f. 

Alexander  the  Great : projedted  road- 
making of,  222  f ; campaigns  of,  357. 

Alexandretta,  reference  to,  330. 

Alexandria:  hospitality  in,  95;  mourn- 
ing party  in,  188  f. ; first  glimpse  of, 
209 ; harbor  of,  209  f. ; sights  of, 
212:  Arab  quarter  of,  212,  295  f. ; 
preparing  the  way  in,  216  ; Oriental 
at  prayer  in,  255  f ; dragoman  of, 
266,  329, 

“ All  roads  lead  to  Rome,”  224. 

Allah  Nazr,  hospitableToorkoman,  97f. 

Allen,  Dr.,  in  Korea,  317. 

Alms:  crying  for,  296,  298,  301  ; dif- 
ference between  asking  gift  and  ask- 
ing, 327. 

“Alps  unclothed,”  Sinaitic  mountains 
referred  to  as,  394. 

Altar : circuit  of,  347  ; to  God,  earliest 
in  Canaan,  357  f 

Amen,  reference  to,  248. 

Amenophis  II.,  reference  to,  248. 

America  : pilgrimage  survivals  10,352. 

American  Indians  : their  hospitality, 
138  f.  ; their  burial  customs,  176. 

Amorites,  road  through  land  of,  223. 

Amos  : his  references  to  mourning, 
IS3.  161, 

Amulets,  sellers  of,  335. 

'Anazehs,  hospitality  among,  76,  115. 

Animal,  “sacrificing”  of,  165-167,285. 

Animal  food,  rarity  of,  in  desert,  48, 
285-287. 

Anklets ; as  bridal  ornaments,  41  ; 
41 1 


412 


Topical  Index. 


worn  by  rich  and  poor,  321  ; made 
of  silver,  326. 

Anti-Lebanon,  hospitality  in,  83  f. 

Antiquity  ; of  hospitality,  136  f. ; of 
funeral  procession,  163  f. ; of  fune- 
ral feast,  167  ; of  pilgrimages,  339  f. 

Apocalypse,  marriage  rejoicings  in,  56. 

Apostles;  reference  to,  312;  given 
authority  to  heal  diseases,  313. 

Apricots,  preserved,  in  desert,  289. 

April : grain  ripened  in,  364;  visit  to 
Gerizim  in,  372. 

Aqabar,  Gulf  of,  334. 

Arab  quarter  of  Alexandria,  212,  295  f. 

Arabia : marriage  of  blood  relatives 
in,  31 ; wedding  scene  in,  45-58; 
hospitality  in,  81,  94  f , 125  ; guest- 
houses and  guest-chambers  in,  95  ; 
funeral  feasts  in,  165  ; roads  in,  216  ; 
need  of  help  for  sick  in,  306  ; un- 
changing customs  of,  320  f.,  325; 
gold  and  silver  in,  324 ; many  names 
for,  388;  Jesus  in  wilderness  of,  390; 
Paul's  training  in,  390;  soul's  train- 
ing-school, 391 ; description  of,  392 ; 
scenery'  of,  392  ; no  support  for  man 
in,  401. 

“ Arabian  Nights  : " description  of 
wedding  in,  40;  reference  to,  271. 

Arabic  Africa,  hospitality  in,  118-120. 

Arabic  words,  reference  to,  245,  309, 

323  346. 

Arabs : of  Sinaitic  Peninsula,  betrothal 
among,  29  f. ; marriageofblood rela- 
tives among,  31 ; of  Nakhl,  48 ; 
their  idea  of  value  of  time,  80 ; their 
estimate  of  hospitality,  96,  120  ; 
proverb  of,  loi ; sharp  pradfice  of, 
loi  : their  self-control  when  im- 
posed on,  102;  references  to,  124, 
210  f.,  241,  243,  250,  256,  258,  281, 
306-308,  311,  327,  349;  mourning 
among,  194 ; at  tomb  of  Shaykh 
Szaleh,  195  ; reverence  for  parents 
among,  249  f. ; greediness  of,  284  f. ; 
scanty  fare  of,  284,  286 ; preparation 
of  food  among,  287. 

Arculf,  Bishop,  quotation  from,  336. 

Ark  of  the  covenant,  347. 

Armenian  love-tale,  65  f. 

Armenian  Christians  in  J erusalem , 335. 

Arnald,  Prince,  refusal  of  water  to,  362. 

Artemisia's  monument  to  her  hus- 
band, 71. 


Aryans ; betrothal  among,  27 ; refer- 
ence to,  368. 

Ascension,  Chapel  of  the,  273  f.,  336  f 

Ascriptions  before  prayer,  266. 

Asia : hospitality  in,  82  f.,  96  f. ; royal 
roads  in,  220  f. ; reference  to,  221 ; 
survivals  of  pilgrimage  in,  352. 

"Asking”  not  "borrowing,”  327. 

Assyria : betrothal  contradls  in,  23  f. ; 
marriage  of  blood  relatives  among, 
32 ; romantic  love  in  mythology  of, 
63  f. ; dodtrine  of  future  life  in,  199; 
roads  in,  220  f. 

Asylum,  right  of,  105  f.,  126  f.,  130  f., 
134. 

Atad,  threshing-floor  of,  169. 

Athaliah  as  ruler,  68. 

Austria,  Crown  Prince  of,  217. 

Avenger  of  blood,  appeal  from,  134  f. 

'Ayn  Qadis,  sowing  and  reaping  near, 
292. 

'Azazimeh  tribe,  adventure  with,  107  f. 

’Azazimeh  shaykh,  258. 

Baal,  priests  of,  214,  261. 

Babel  and  Pandemonium,  210. 

Babylon;  marriage  customs  in  ancient, 
22;  prophecy  against,  174;  king- 
dom of,  233  : reference  to,  269, 306. 

Babylonia;  road-making  in,  221  f. ; 
healing  custom  in,  305;  Affej  tribes 
of,  326  ; exploring  expedition  to, 
326  f 

Bacon,  Leonard  Woolsey  ; cited,  150. 

Bakhsheesh  ; refused  for  hospitality, 
89-91,  1 15;  from  howajji,  299;  for 
cripple,  308 ; beggar's  cry  for,  327 ; 
conception  of,  in  East,  327-332 ; in- 
cluded in  contradl,  328. 

Barak  and  Deborah,  127. 

Barbarians,  hospitality  a virtue  of,  81. 

Barbary ; scenes  of  mourning  in, 
155  f. ; reference  to.  314. 

Barley ; land  of,  278 ; cakes  of,  in 
desert.  280  f ; references  to,  280, 
28-l  289,  323  ; sowing  0^364. 

Bartimeus,  blind,  reference  to,  309. 

Battle  of  Hatteen,  362. 

Bazaars ; of  Cairo,  296,  325.  335 ; of 
Jerusalem  and  Damascus,  325. 

Beard,  advantages  of  patriarchal,  245. 

Bed'ween  ; hospitality  among.  76- 
82,  no  f.  ; funeral  feasts  among, 
166  f. ; honor  to  Shaykh  Szaleh, 


Topical  Index. 


413 


194  ; tombs  of  prote(5ling  saints 
among,  195 ; references  to,  244  f,, 
281,  290  ; reverence  for  father 

among,  250 ; praying  man  among, 
258  ; limited  requirements  of,  278- 
285  ; comparative  health  of,  298  ; 
descendants  of  Ishmaelites,  324 ; 
gold  and  silver  among,  325. 
Beersheba:  adventure  at,  107  f. ; cove- 
nant at,  108  ; wells  of,  108,  257  f. 
Beggars  : references  to,  284,  327  ; of 
Alexandria,  295  f. ; of  Constanti- 
nople, 304  ; near  Mt,  Sinai,  308, 

" Beginning  of  months,  the,"  379. 
Belial,  “daughters  of"  and  "sons 
of,"  242. 

Benhadad,  campaigns  of,  357, 
Benjamin:  reference  to,  191 ; wailing 
among  tribe  of,  192;  “sons  of," 
241  f. 

Benjamite  lack  of  hospitality,  133  f. 
Berber,  funeral  feast  in,  166. 

Besharah,  reference  to,  loi, 

“ Best  man,"  17-19, 

Bethany  : grave  of  Lazarus  at,  177  f. ; 

road  from,  274, 

Bethel,  mourning  at,  151, 

Bethesda,  waters  of,  300,  304. 
Bethlehem : and  Ramah,  lessons  from, 
191  f;  Rachel's  tomb  near,  191  f ; 
wailing  in,  192;  founder  of,  240. 
Betrothal : before  birth,  8 ; in  China, 
8,  II  ; in  India,  8,  26;  prominence 
of,  in  East,  8 ; based  on  dowry,  9; 
cord  of,  II ; recognition  of  daugh- 
ter's choice  in,  13;  in  Lebanon 
region,  14;  in  Upper  Syria,  14;  in 
Upper  Egypt,  14-21  ; among  Arabs, 
14-21,  27  f.  ; food-sharing  before, 
15  f.  ; preliminaries  to,  15-20;  ex- 
amination of  candidate  for,  17 ; vari- 
ations in  customs  of,  20-22  ; con- 
trails of,  between  parents,  20,  23  f. ; 
compensation  to  bride's  parents  at, 
22  ; of  Isaac  and  Rebekah,  22; 
sought  as  means  of  influence,  25 ; 
in  childhood,  26  : sacred  as  mar- 
riage ceremony,  26  ; among  Aryan 
and  Semitic  peoples,  27  ; feast  at, 
27;  arranged  by  professional  "go- 
between,"  31 ; lessons  from  wed- 
dings and,  63,  206. 

Betrothal  and  marriage,  contrails  of, 
equivalent,  21  f.  1 


Betrothed  regarded  as  wife,  26, 

Betrothing  elder  sister  for  younger,  31, 

Beyrout : route  from  Hebron  to,  298  ; 
Prussian  hospital  at,  330, 

Bible  : doilrine  of  marriage  in,  33  ; 
wedding  customs  in,  41  f. ; wed- 
ding processions  in,  45  ; descrip- 
tion of  model  woman  in,  69  f. ; guest- 
chamber  in,  95  ; word  dakheel  in, 
135  f.  ; teachings  of,  as  to  hospi- 
tality, 140  f. ; tear-bottle  in,  160; 
wailing  and  mourning  in,  161 ; life 
after deathin,  173 f.,  198-200;  assem- 
blies at  graves  in,  191  f. ; references 
to,  207  f , 286,  346;  forerunner  in, 
216  ; translation  of  derekh  and  hodos 
in,  219 f, ; word  “ ways"  in,  230-236 ; 
word  “father"  in,  239;  prayer  in, 
255 ; posture  in  prayer  in,  268 ; story 
of  Israelites  in,  280,  291,  319,  324  f, ; 
resonableness  of  miracles  in,  292- 
294;  promises  of,  318;  pilgrimage 
idea  in,  340. 

Bicycle  safe  in  strangers'  hands,  82. 

Bishop  Arculf,  quotation  from,  336. 

Bishop,  Isabella  Bird,  quotation  from, 

31s  f- 

Bitten  by  “ fiery  serpent,"  308. 

“ Bitter  herbs  " at  passover,  377,  382. 

Blessing,  mount  of,  373. 

Blind:  in  Alexandria,  212,  295  f. ; in 
Cairo,  296  ; among  Bed' ween,  298  ; 
in  Palestine,  298-304,  313,  316  ; in 
Constantinople,  304 ; near  Mt.  Sinai, 
308  f. 

Blood  : for  God,  flesh  for  man,  47  f ; 
represents  life,  157,  285;  sprinkled 
over  dead,  157  f.  ; aprons  stained 
with,  158  f.  : Levitical  prohibition 
of,  160;  covenant  of,  361  ; of  the 
Lamb,  372;  of  sacrifice,  379;  chil- 
dren marked  with  blood,  379 ; door- 
way springled  with,  381  f. 

Blunt,  Lady  Anne,  quotation  from, 
31,  94,  115,  132  f. 

Blunt,  Sir  Wilfred,  quotation  from,  31, 
96. 

Boardman,  George  Dana:  cited,  307  f. 

Boaz  and  Ruth,  360. 

Body  taken  around  church,  353. 

Booddha's  " Dhammapada,"  230. 

Booddhism  : and  “the  way,"  230; 
prayer  formula  of,  261 ; belief  of, 
261;  in  India,  349;  circumambula- 


4H 


Topical  Index. 


tions  in,  349-351  ; monasteries  of, 
350;  truth  of,  367. 

Booddhist  temple  in  Darjiling,  262. 

Book  of  the  Dead,  Eg\ptian,  136,  264. 

Bookbinders'  paste  as  food,  280  f. 

Boolaq,  museum  at,  324. 

Booths:  living  in,  344;  and  tents,  347. 
Borrowed,"  word  translated  in  Eng- 
lish Bible,  320. 

“ Borrowing"  of  Israelites,  320,  327. 

“ Bosh,"  use  of  word  for  divorce,  37. 

Bottled  tears : buried  with  dead,  156  ; 
preserved  among  living,  156  f.,  187. 

Bottles,  goat-skin,  213. 

Bowing;  prescribed  by  Muhamma- 
dans, 267;  toward  temple  ruin,  272f. 

Bracelets  : worn  by  all  classes,  321 ; 
of  Bed'wy  woman,  326. 

Brahmanism,  truth  of,  367. 

Brahmans,  food  for  dead  among,  176. 

Bread : baked  on  ashes,  93  ; sharing 
of,  97,  110  f.,  361  f.  ; with  grape- 
molasses,  III ; made  in  hard  balls, 
283  f.,  289  f.;  crust  of,  285;  manna 
as  material  for,  293  ; preferred  to 
fruit,  308  f.  ; feast  of  unleavened, 
340 ; for  passover  feast,  377. 

Bread-sharing,  covenant  of,  361  f. 

Breast-beating  and  wailing,  169,  181. 

Bridal  ornaments  hired,  51. 

Bridal  veil  in  ceremony,  42  f. 

Bride : donor  of,  1 1 ; dowry  paid  to, 
22  ; compensation  of  parents  of,  22; 
" capture  of,"  27-30;  taken  to  new 
home,  32  f.,  44  ; belonging  to  her 
mother-in-law,  33  ; loaded  down 
with  treasure,  35  f. ; presented  in  her 
various  costumes,  39  f. ; her  trous- 
seau exhibited,  39  f.,  44 : ornaments 
of,  in  Damascus  and  Constantino- 
ple, 41  ; veiled  in  red  shawl,  50 ; 
lifted  over  threshold,  53. 

Bride  and  bridegroom  : first  meeting 
of,  at  marriage,  58 ; borne  in 
“palankeens,”  61;  making  circuit 
of  fire,  348  f. 

Bride's  dowry  : portion  of,  20,  22 ; 
carried  with  her,  323. 

Bndechamber,  children  of,  242. 

Bridegroom:  “ friend  of,  " 17;  proces- 
sion of,  to  meet  bride,  44-46,  53  f.  ; 
joy  of,  45,  59 ; going  to  prayers,  57. 

Brooches : as  bridal  ornaments,  41  ; 
worn  by  rich  and  poor,  321. 


Brotherhood  of  man,  125,  131,  206  f. 

Browning,  Robert,  quotation  from,  10. 

Bruce,  James,  quotation  from,  81,  107, 
226. 

Bubastis,  pilgrimage  to,  340. 

Buffalo  for  funeral  feast,  166-168. 

Burckhardt,  J.  L.,  quotation  from, 
83-89,  96,  101,  114  f.,  149,  165  f., 
175  (•.  J9S- 

Burghul  in  funeral  feast,  167. 

Burial:  on  day  of  death,  162,  177; 
sharing  food  at,  165-167 ; forbidden 
to  unworthy,  171-175;  supplies  for 
dead  at,  175-177;  circuit  of  syna- 
gogue at,  353. 

Burial  customs:  in  Egypt,  156,  165, 
175  : in  Syria,  156, 165  f. ; in  Arabia, 
165  ; among  Bed' ween  Arabs,  166 ; 
in  Palestine,  172 ; in  Nubia,  175  f. ; 
in  China,  Russia,  South  Africa,  and 
America,  176  ; in  India,  176  f. 

Burning:  of  wives,  177;  of  wool  and 
entrails  of  lamb,  380. 

Burton,  Lady,  quotation  from,  38. 

Burton,  Sir  Richard,  quotation  from, 
24,  82,  96,  102,  342. 

Busiris,  place  of  pilgrimage,  340. 

“Butter:”  in  Bible,  78;  in  desert, 
289  f. 

Cairo  : strings  of  coins  on  school- 
girls in,  36 ; wedding  processions 
in,  44;  funeral  procession  in,  162; 
“ howling”  datAveeshes  in,  259 ; pre- 
paring to  pray  in,  265;  sickness  and 
suffering  in,  296;  bread  from,  308  f. ; 
bazaars  of,  325,  335. 

Caleb  and  Achsah,  12. 

Calf,  golden  ear-rings  made  into,  319. 

Calling  : on  name  of  Lord,  135  ; on 
the  dead,  151,  177. 

Camel-driver's  loss  of  coin,  323  f. 

Camels:  wedding  gifts  exhibited  on, 
44  ; sacrifice  of,  93  ; throwing  dust 
on,  194 ; milk  of,  284 ; skeletons  of, 
on  great  Hajj  route,  334. 

Canaan : Jacob's  burial  in,  169  f. ; 
march  of  Israelites  to,  292,  374 ; 
Abraham's  pilgrimage  to,  357. 

Canaanite  dotftrine  of  future  life,  199. 

Candace,  queen  of  Ethiopians,  68. 

Canopy  for  bride  in  processions,  51. 

“ Capturing  a bride,”  27-30. 

Caracca,  Prince  Arnald  of,  362. 


Topical  Index. 


415 


Caravan  of  pilgrims  : to  Meccah,  291 ; 
to  Jerusalem,  339,  343. 

Caravan  route,  great,  356. 

Carmel,  Ahab  at,  214. 

Castle  Nakhl  : wedding  at,  43-58; 
changing  camels  at,  244;  incident 
at,  250 ; governor  of,  309,  328 ; call 
for  healing  at,  328  ; bakhsheesh  at, 
328. 

Catafalques  in  funerals.  168. 

Catechism,  Westminster,  267. 

Catharine,  St.,  Convent  of,  283,  308. 

Cathay,  sages  of,  368. 

Celtic  mourning  survivals,  132  f.,  198. 

Ceremonial  cleansing,  266-268. 

Ceremonies  on  Gerizim,  366,  371-386. 

Ceremony  : of  hand-shaking,  15  ; of 
pilgrimage,  350. 

Chabas,  Fran9ois,  quotation  from,  249. 

Chaldea:  inscriptions  of,  153  ; mourn- 
ing in,  197 ; Abraham’s  pilgrimage 
from,  357. 

Changeless  Oriental  mind,  7. 

Chanting  of  religious  sentences,  163  ; 
of  dirge,  184,  193 ; of  Quran  and 
Moslem  creed,  352. 

Chapel  of  the  Ascension,  273,  336  f. 

Chardin.Sir  John,  quotation  from,  148. 

Chenan,  Shaykh,  legend  of,  65  f. 

Cheops,  builders  of  pyramid  of,  398. 

Chicken  in  desert,  289  f. 

Chicken-bones  and  egg-shells  as  food, 
285. 

Chieftain,  burial  of  wives  with,  176  f. 

Child-betrothals  in  Chinaand  India,  8. 

Child-marriage  in  India,  10  f. 

Child-widows  in  India,  26. 

Children : in  wedding  processions, 
50 ; in  streets  of  Alexandria,  212 ; 
with  sore  or  sightless  eyes,  295  f., 
300;  personal  ornaments  of,  325; 
making  circuit  with  load  of  prayer- 
books,  351 ; of  Gerizim,  376  f. ; their 
share  in  sacrifice,  377-380;  marked 
with  blood,  379. 

Children  : of  Abraham,  241 ; of  Israel, 
241,  286,  380,  389;  of  disobedience, 
oflight,  of  bridechamber,  ofthe  East, 
of  wisdom,  of  wrath,  of  God,  345. 

Children's  games,  pilgrim  idea  in,  353. 

China;  betrothals  in,  8,  ii  ; "go- 
between  ” in,  21 ; hospitality  in,  99 ; 
“ cloths  to  cry  with,"  in,  159:  food 
for  dead  in,  176 ; religions  of,  229  f. ; 


emperor  of,  251 ; reverence  for  par- 
ents in,  253  f.  ; medical  missions 
in,  315;  pilgrims  from,  350. 

Christ's  estimate  of  marriage,  10. 

Christian  chapel  on  Mount  of  Olives, 
275- 

" Christian  dogs,”  48  f. 

Christian  hakeem  welcomed  by  Mu- 
hammadans, 316. 

Christian  pilgrims  at  Jerusalem,  348. 

Christian  posture  in  prayer,  267. 

Christianity : its  influence  on  position 
of  woman,  66  f. ; mission  of,  71  f. ; 
as  “ the  way,”  233  ; compared  with 
outside  religions,  367  f. 

Church  of  England  marriage  service, 
II. 

Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher,  335. 

Churchyard,  circuitous  path  to,  353. 

Cigarettes,  refusal  of,  in  father’s  pres- 
ence, 250. 

Circuit:  pilgrimage,  346;  at  Jeru- 
salem, 347 ; of  altar  at  Feast  of 
Tabernacles,  347;  of  walls  of  Jeri- 
cho, 347  ; in  Christian  churches  and 
synagogues,  348  ; in  India,  348  f. ; 
at  ^leccah,  349 ; of  tomb  of  Neby 
Saleh,  349;  of  monasteries,  stupas, 
and  sacred  walls,  349  ; of  grave, 
352  f.;  at  Jewish  funeral  in  Phila- 
delphia, 353;  at  weddings  and  fune- 
rals, 353  f. 

Circuitous  route  : of  wedding  proces- 
sion, 52  f. ; to  churchyard,  353. 

Circumambulations  of  Booddhists, 
349-351- 

Circumcision,  sharing  sacrifice  at,  285. 

Cities  of  refuge  in  land  of  Israel,  126  f. 

Cleopatras,  the,  reference  to,  68. 

" Close  fist,  narrow  heart,”  94. 

" Cloths  to  cry  with,”  159. 

Coffee ; from  Hejaz,  78  ; poured  out 
before  God,  79 ; served  to  guests,  79, 
93,  95,  244;  covenanting  in  sharing 
of,  107. 

Coffins  in  Eg>  pt,  168. 

Coins  ; strings  of,  on  school-girls,  36 ; 
worn  by  Oriental  women,  320  ; for 
necklace,  321,  326. 

ColletSf,  old,  reference  to  footsteps  of 
Jesus  in,  337. 

Colosseum  of  Rome,  394. 

“ Commandment  with  promise,"  232. 

Commentaries,  uninspired,  292. 


4i6 


Topical  Index. 


Commentators  puzzled  over  natural 
incidents,  302  f.,  360  f. 

Comparison  of  mourning  ways  in  East 
and  West,  185-188. 

Compendium  of  all  knowledge,  261. 

Concealing  suffering  from  guests.  87  f. 

Conder,  C.  R.,  quotation  from,  iii, 
195 ; cited,  112. 

Confucianism,  truth  of,  368. 

Connal,  death-cry  o%'er,  152  f. 

Constantinople:  bridal  ornaments  in, 
41;  wedding  procession  in,  44; 
blind  beggars  and  cripples  in,  304. 

Contract  of  betrothal,  20-22 

Contrac'f  of  betrothal  and  of  marriage 
equivalent,  21  f. 

Convent  of  St.  Catharine,  283,  308. 

Coptic  Christians  in  Jerusalem,  335. 

Corn : Egyptian  and  Indian,  281  ; 
parched,  as  food,  284,  289,  323. 

Cornfields.  Plain  of,  356,  364. 

Cornfields,  well  of  the,  360. 

Corpse  taken  toward  setting  sun,  332  f. 

Courtship  and  marriage  unchanged 
since  Abraham's  time,  31. 

Covenant : ofblood,  15, 361;  tokens  of, 
41 ; of  peace  and  friendship,  105  f. ; 
of  hospitality,  105-116,  361  ; bread 
and  salt,  iii ; with  dead,  165;  of 
salt,  361 ; of  bread-sharing,  361  f. ; 
in  drinking,  361-363. 

Cow  sacrificed  for  funeral  feast,  165  f. 

Cox,  Samuel,  quotation  from,  343. 

Cradle  among  wedding-gifts,  44. 

Craftsmen,  valley  of,  240  f. 

Crazy  ‘‘  people  of  blessing,”  305. 

Creed,  Moslem,  chanting  of,  352. 

Crime  of  inhospitality,  138. 

Cripples;  of  Alexandria,  212;  of 
Cairo,  295  f. ; ofGheezeh,  Saqqdrah, 
and  on  Nile,  296 ; among  Bed'ween, 
298  ; between  Hebron  and  Beyrout, 
298;  of  Jaffa  and  Jerusalem.  299;  : 
ofNablus,  3oof. ; of  Constantinople, 
304  ; at  Wady  Fayran,  308. 

Crown  or  diadem  at  weddings,  41. 

Crown  Prince  of  Austria,  217. 

Crucifixes,  sellers  of,  335. 

Cry  of  forerunner,  213-218,  227  i. 

Cure,  calls  of  sick  for,  295-318. 

Cursing,  mount  of,  373. 

Customs  founded  on  sentiment,  not 
on  historic  incident,  29. 

Cutting  one's  flesh,  157-159. 


Daheer,  reference  to,  89. 

“ Dakheel,”  naming  one's,  134-136. 

Damascus;  wedding  in,  38;  bridal 
ornaments  in.  41  ; wedding  proces- 
sions in,  44  ; bazaars  of,  325. 

Damascus  Gate  of  Jerusalem,  337. 

Dancing : before  the  Lord,  52 ; in 
wedding  procession,  52,  54  f. 

I Daniel  pr.aying  toward  Jerusalem,  269. 

Darby,  Dr. : cited,  307  f. 

Darius,  royal  road  of.  222. 

Daijiling,  prayer  machinery  in,  262  f. 

Darweeshes,  references  to,  258-260, 

265.  336.  376. 

Daughter : consulted  in  betrothal,  13  ; 
equivalent  value  of  marriageable,  23; 
“of  men,"  241;  “ of  Jabal,"  242; 
“ of  Belial,”  242. 

David : Michal  and  Merab  promised 
to,  13  ; his  service  in  lieu  of  dowry, 
23;  dancing  before  Lord,  52;  his 
love  for  Abigail,  63  ; house  of,  112; 
and  Joab,  130  f. ; wailing  of,  151, 
160  f.;  royal  splendor  under,  359. 

Dead  : Egyptian  Book  of,  136 ; call- 
ing on,  151,  177;  sharing  food  with, 
165,  176 ; raising  of,  313. 

Death-cry:  description  of,  143-150; 
intelligence  announced  by,  147. 

Deborah,  reference  to,  68,  127  f. 

Dedication : of  Solomon's  Temple, 
269 ; of  Promised  Land  to  God.  358. 

Deluge  : command  to  Noah  after,  116; 
Gerizim  tradition  as  to,  374. 

Dependants  of  Convent  of  St.  Cathar- 
ine, 283  f.,  308. 

De  Quincey,  quotation  from,  313-315. 

Derekh,  meaning  of  word,  219  f. 

Descendants  of  Israel,  359. 

Description  : of  death  cry,  143-150  ; 
of  funeral  feast  in  Huleh,  166  f. ; of 
mourning  week,  178-183  ; of  life  in 
Ale.xandria,  209-216. 

Desert:  worshiping  in,  238;  freedom 
from  sickness  in,  296;  first  Sunday 
in,  297;  track  of  Hajj  in,  334; 
Arabs  circuiting  tomb  in,  349;  Is- 
raelites wandering  in,  374  ; chalky 
whiteness  of,  393. 

Devils,  casting  out  of,  312. 

“ Dhammapada,  " Booddha's,  230. 

Diamonds  on  person,  41. 

Dido,  queen  of  Carthage,  68. 

Dinah  and  Shechem,  13.  63. 


Topical  Index. 


417 


Diodorus,  quotation  from,  221  f. 

Dirge;  chanting  of,  for  dead,  184,193; 
in  Egypt  and  Palestine,  200-202. 

Disease:  varying  phases  of,  297  ; uni- 
versal expedtation  of  cure  of,  304, 
306. 

Diseased : in  Egypt,  295-298, 305,  315  ; 
in  Arabia,  297  f.,  306-310;  in  Pales- 
tine, 298-304.  310-318  ; in  Syria,  300, 
305  f.,  315  ; Jesus'  work  among,  301- 
304,  312-318;  in  Turkey,  303  f., 
315;  in  Babylonia,  305;  in  Lebanon 
regions,  311  f, ; in  Persia,  India, 
China,  Japan,  and  Siam,  315  ; in 
Korea,  316. 

Divine  son.ship  of  kings,  248. 

Divorce  : Muhammadan  law  of,  36  f,  ; 
Mosaic  law  of.  37;  protedlion  in 
case  of,  322  f. 

Divorced  fromhusbandby  aword,322. 

Divorced  wife,  rights  of,  37. 

Djezzar,  reference  to,  115. 

Dogs  buried  with  dead,  176. 

" Donation  party,"  modern,  loi  f. 

Donkeys:  in  Alexandria,  212;  near 
Cairo,  215  ; near  Jerusalem,  337. 

Donor  of  bride,  ii. 

Doolittle,  quotation  from,  159. 

Doorway  sprinkled  with  blood,  381  f. 

Dothan,  incident  near,  102  f. 

Doughty,  C.  M.,  quotation  from,  125. 

Douglas,  R.  K.,  quotation  from,  253. 

Dowry:  not  “price  of  wife,"  9;  ar- 
ranging for,  9,  20  ; invested  in 
jewelry,  20;  paid  to  bride,  22;  in 
ancient  times,  24 ; wife's  right  of, 
322;  carried  on  bride's  person,  323. 

Dragoman  : of  Alexandria,  210,  308, 
329 ; at  Wells  of  Moses,  257. 

Dressing  day  in  wedding  ceremonies, 
40- 

Dressmakers  among  bereaved  Occi- 
dentals, 187. 

Drinking  together  in  covenant,  106-108. 

Dromedaries:  milk  of,  284,  289;  sacri- 
ficed in  desert,  285  f. 

Dromedary  sacrificed  at  wedding  feast, 
47-49- 

Druses,  hospitality  among,  91, 113-115. 

Dry  den  : cited,  30. 

Du  Bois,  Abbe : cited,  348  f. 

Dust:  thrown  on  head  at  tomb,  194; 
thrown  on  camel,  194;  substituted 
for  water,  268. 


Ea-rani  and  Harimtu,  legend  of,  63  f. 

Eala,  green  hillock  of,  352. 

" Ear  of  God,"  272. 

Ear-rings  : as  bridal  ornaments,  41  ; 
among  Israelites,  319;  worn  by  rich 
and  poor,  321 ; jewels  and,  325  ; of 
Bed'wy  woman,  326. 

Ears  cleansed  for  prayer,  266. 

East : proverbs  of,  64  f. ; first  glimpse 
of.  209;  “children  of  the,"  242; 
threshold  of,  304. 

Easter:  at  Jerusalem,  298,  348;  the 
first.  338  ; pilgrimages  at,  345  ; at 
the  Holy  Sepulcher,  349. 

Eastward  position  in  prayer,  269, 375  f. 

Eating:  in  covenant,  106,  no;  in  be- 
half of  dead,  167  ; with  father  un- 
usual, 250;  enough  for  forty  days, 
287-289. 

Ebal,  mount  of  cursing,  356,  373. 

Edersheim,  Alfred,  quotation  from, 

305- 

Edom,  road  through,  223. 

Edris  : his  hospitality,  166. 

Edwards,  Amelia  B.,  quotation  from, 
149,  201  f. 

Egypt  : betrothal  in,  14-21 ; “ go- 
between  " in,  21 ; ancient  marriage 
customs  in,  22 ; betrothal  contraAs 
in,  23  f. ; marriage  of  blood  relatives 
in,  31  f . ; romantic  love  in,  64; 
woman's  place  in  ancient,  66-68 ; 
woman  in  sculpture  of,  67  f ; hos- 
pitality in,  88  f.  ; guest-houses  and 
guest-chambers  in,  95 ; covenanting 
in,  107;  mourning  in,  143-148,  183, 
197  f.  ; monuments  of,  153,  264; 
funeral  processions  in  literature  of, 
164;  scarfs  on  mourners  in,  165; 
funeral  feasts  in,  165 ; coffins  in, 
168;' Jacob's  funeral  procession 
from,  169  f.;  funeral  service  in,  170; 
burial  only  to  worthy  in,  173-175  ; 
food  for  dead  in,  176;  dodlrine  of 
future  life  in,  199-201 ; embalming 
body  in,  200;  requests  for  prayer 
in,  201  f. ; dirges  in,  202;  music 
in,  213,  376;  decline  of,  215  ; road- 
building in,  216,  220;  gold-mines 
of,  220 ; “ father  " idea  in  the- 
ology of,  248  ; teachings  of  an- 
cient, 248  f. ; family  attachment  in, 
249-251 ; woman's  right  of  succes- 
sion to  throne  in,  251  ; darweeshes 


4i8 


Topical  Index. 


in,  259  f. ; ancient  ritual  of,  264 ; 
exodus  from,  288, 372  ; sickness  and 
suffering  in,  295-298,  306;  “ people  ' 
of  blessing"  in,  305;  medical  mis- 
sions in,  315;  children  of  Israel  in, 
320, 328, 380,  384,  395  f. ; unchanged 
land  of,  320,  325  ; gold  and  silver  in, 
324 ; treasures  in  tombs  of,  324 ; ■ 
bakhsheesh  for  Hebrews  in,  331  f. ; 
Meccah  pilgrimage  from,  334;  pil-  ' 
grimages  to  sacred  sites  in,  340; 
mightiest  rulers  of,  357;  Joseph's 
death  in,  358  ; soul's  land  of  bond- 
age,39i;  sanctuaries  ofgods of,  397. 

Egyptian  Book  of  the  Dead,  136,264. 

“ Elder,"  meaning  of,  243. 

Elfy  Bey,  reference  to,  121. 

Eliezer:  as  "go-between"  forlsaac,  13, 
18,  22,  43 ; servant  of  Abraham,  106. 

Elijah,  references  to,  109  f.,  214,  359, 

389  f- 

Elim,  references  to,  291,  297,  395. 

Elisha's  prophecy  against  Jezebel,  174. 

El-Karey,  Ifohannah,  as  guide,  373. 

El-Leja,  hospitality  at,  91.  124. 

Ellis,  William,  quotation  from,  158  f. 

Elopements,  romantic,  65. 

El-Paran,  reference  to,  271. 

Embalming  of  body  in  Egypt,  200. 

Emmaus,  Jesus  on  way  to,  338. 

Emperor  of  China,  reference  to,  251. 

English  Church,  " processional  " in, 
348- 

Ephesus,  reference  to,  235. 

Ephraim,  hills  of,  356. 

Epileptic  cured  by  Jesus,  312. 

Esau,  old  home  of,  257  f. 

Esdraelon,  plain  of,  214. 

Essenes,  The,  on  Bible  miracles,  313  f. 

" Etham,  wilderness  of,"  388. 

Euphrates,  reference  to,  356. 

Europe:  pilgrims  from,  336;  sur- 

vivals of  pilgrimage  in,  352. 

Ewing,  William,  quotation  from,  laqf. 

Examining  candidate  for  betrothal,  17. 

Exodus,  reciting  story  of,  376. 

Exploringexpedition  to  Babylon,  326  f. 

Ezekiel : his  prophecy  to  Israel,  41  f. ; 
rebuking  Samaria  and  Jerusalem, 
42;  reference  to,  196. 

Family,  traveling  party  called,  238  f 

Fan  and  smelling-bottle  among  Occi-  1 
dentals,  92.  1 


Fasting:  in  mourning,  186;  gorging 
and,  286-288 ; before  partaking  of 
passover,  383. 

Fathah,  chanting  of,  352. 

Father:  duty  of,  to  seledl  wife  for  son, 
It  f. ; head  of  household  called,  237; 
not  merely  parent,  237  ; meaning  of, 
237-239  ; “ of  a multitude  of  na- 
tions, " 239;  “ of  a beard,  " 241 ; "of 
a saucepan,"  241  ; of  the  skaykh, 
243;  "of  the  Faithful,"  406. 

Fayran,  Wady,  reference  to,  308. 

Feast:  accompanying  betrothal,  27;  at 
funeral,  165-168,  178  f. ; Arabs  gor- 
ging at,  286-288  ; of  weeks,  340  ; of 
Tabernacles,  340,  344  f.,  347  ; of  un- 
■ leavened  bread,  340,  385  ; of  Israel 
! representing  Trinity,  344;  of  pass- 
over  at  Jerusalem,  371. 

Feasting,  week  of,  at  wedding,  44. 

I Feldspar,  red,  in  desert,  395. 

I Fellaheen  Arabs,  reference  to,  290. 

Festivities  for  bride  and  groom  sepa- 
rate, 32,  53. 

" Fiery'  serpents"  in  desert,  308,  388. 

Fifth  Commandment,  references  to, 
237  f.,  250,  252 f. 

Fig-trees,  land  of,  278. 

Figurative  meaning  of  pilgrimage, 
340  f. 

Finger-rings  worn  by  all  classes,  321. 

Fire,  circuit  of,  among  Hindoos,  348  f. 

Flowers  in  desert,  399,  404. 

Food:  sharingof,  15?.,  io5f. ; fordead, 
in  Egypt,  China,  Russia,  and  India, 
176  ; for  Israelites  in  wandering, 
291-293  : from  heaven  for  Elijah, 
390;  supply  of,  for  journey  across 
desert,  401  f ; scanty  supplies  of,  in 
desert,  406. 

Footprints  of  Jesus  on  Mount  of 
Olives,  336  f. 

Forerunners,  cry  of : in  Alexandria, 
i 213  f.,  216  : in  Holy'  Land,  214  f., 
217  f. ; near  Cairo,  215;  in  Bible, 

^ 216;  in  Abyssinia,  226  f. 

Forgiving  the  dead,  172  f. 

Franks,  king  of  the,  362. 

Friday  at  few's  wailing-place,  272  f. 

I " Friend  of  bridegroom,  " 17,  34  f.,  59- 

I 61. 

Friendship  : covenant  of,  105  f ; gift 
as  token  of,  327. 

Funeral  feasts:  in  Egypt  and  Arabia, 


Topical  Index. 


419 


165  ; in  Syria  and  Nubia,  165  f. ; 
among  Bed'ween  Arabs,  166  f. ; 
among  Irish,  English,  and  Ameri- 
cans, 168. 

Funeral  processions  : East  and  West, 
162-165,  168-171;  antiquity  of, 
163  f.  ; barges  in,  168  ; making 
threefold  circuit,  352  f. 

Funerals : in  Egypt,  Italy,  Ireland, 
Pennsylvania,  and  New  England, 
162  f. ; displays  at,  168,  170  f.  ; of 
Jacob,  169  f. ; in  Paris,  in  London, 
in  New  York,  in  Washington,  170; 
long-continued  ceremonies  at,  178!. 

Funerary  tablets,  prayers  on,  201. 

Funereal  Ritual,  264. 

Furniture  broken  to  show  sorrow,  187. 

Future  life  : among  Africans,  176  f. ; 
teachings  of  Scripture  regarding, 
198-200;  dodirine  of,  199-201. 

Galata,  reference  to,  304. 

Galileans  at  Passover  feast,  338. 

Galilee  : Jesus  passing  through,  301  ; 
and  Judea,  road  from,  356. 

Gallic  mourning  survivals,  153. 

Game,  wild,  in  the  desert,  286. 

Games  of  children,  pilgrim  ideain,  353. 

Gaza,  tomb  of  Samson  near,  195  f. 

Gazelle  for  food  in  desert,  286. 

Ge-harashim,  Joab  father  of,  240. 

Generosity  greatest  of  virtues,  93  t. 

Genuine  sorrow  in  conventional  form, 
154  f- 

Gerizim  : mihrab  at,  270  f. ; destruc- 
tion of  temple  on,  359  ; ceremonies 
of  Samaritan  passover  on,  366,  375- 
385;  visit  to,  372  f. ; mount  of  bless- 
ing. 373 ; sacrifice  on,  373,  378-381 ; 
claimed  as  center  of  earth  and  as  ( 
highest  mountain,  374 ; called  house 
of  God  and  gate  of  heaven,  374; 
pilgrims  at,  384. 

Gethsemane,  Garden  of,  references  to, 
273.  299.  337- 

Gharandel,  Wady,  incident  at,  306. 

Gheezeh  : wailing  at,  143  ; forerunner 
to,  215;  pyramids  at,  296,  396. 

Gibeah  : in  days  of  Judges,  84  f.  ; de- 
stroyed for  inhospitality,  133  f. 

Gibeonites  and  Israelites,  109  f. 

Gideon : his  battle  with  ^lidianites, 
76,  324  ; his  spoil  from  Midianites, 

324  f- 


Gift:  of  Abraham  to  Rebekah,  22; 

request  for,  as  token  of  friendship, 
327  ; to  show  satisfaction  with  ser- 
vice, 328  f. ; illustration  of  way  of 
asking,  329  f. 

" Gift  of  God,”  water  as  the,  213. 

Gifts  : sent  to  groom  in  advance  of 
guests,  35  ; for  bride  borne  in  pro- 
cession, 44  ; of  Israelites,  319  f. 

Gilead,  Land  of,  reference  to,  356. 

Girdle  : as  bridal  ornament,  41 ; as 
coin-storer,  323 ; of  high-priest,  383. 

Gneiss,  gray,  in  desert,  395. 

Goat-hair  tent,  242,  326. 

Goats : sacrificed  for  guest,  97,  285  ; 
in  streets  of  Alexandria,  212  ; milk 
of,  284. 

“Go-between  ” in  betrothals,  services 
of,  13,  17-22,  31. 

Gold  : destroyed  for  molten  calf,  319  f.; 
jewels  of,  319  f.,  323,  325,  327,  331  f. ; 
hoarding  of,  322,  325. 

Gold  ornaments;  of  Israelites,  319- 
321,  327;  in  Egy-pt,  320,  322-325  ; 
in  Arabia,  320-326  ; in  Palestine, 
324  f. ; in  Syria,  325. 

Golden  calf : worship  of,  230  f. ; ear- 
rings furnished  for,  319. 

Golden  Calf,  Hill  of  the,  308. 

Golden  Horn,  bridge  over,  304. 

Gold-mines  of  Upper  Egypt,  220. 

Goldsmiths  of  bazaars  of  Cairo,  Jeru- 
salem, and  Damascus,  325. 

Goodwin,  C.  W.,  quotation  from,  249. 

Gordon-Cumming,  Mrs.  C.  F.,  quota- 
tion from,  352  f. 

Gorging  at  feasts,  286-288. 

Government : an  enlarged  family,  247 ; 
based  on  filial  reverence,  252  f. 

Governor  of  Castle  Nakhl,  45  f.,  328. 

Grand  Duke  Ale.xander,  reference  to, 
217  f. 

Grand  Lama,  reference  to,  351. 

Grape  - molasses  among  Bed'ween, 
no  f. 

Grapes,  treader  of,  367. 

Greece,  pilgrims  from,  337. 

Greek  Christian  pilgrims : at  Jeru- 
salem, 335,  348  ; to  Mount  of 
Olives,  336. 

Greek  Church  ; burial  custom  of, 
172  f. ; in  Palestine  and  Russia,  348. 

Greek  convent  at  Jaffa,  310.” 

Greek  word  for  “ the  way,”  219  f. 


420 


Topical  Index. 


Greeks  : hospitality  among,  136  f.  ; 
mourning  among,  197. 

Griffin,  Gerald,  quotation  from,  122  f. 

Groom  (see  Bridegroom). 

Guest  : meaning  of  word,  75  ; be- 
coming one  by  asking  question, 
77;  concealing  suffering  from,  87  f., 
protec'led  from  violence  by  in- 
sulted host,  89-91 ; weeping  for  joy 
over,  97 ; never  turned  away,  98  ; 
life  and  honor  pledged  for,  98  f ; 
set  at  work  after  three  days,  105  ; to 
share  meat  of  sacrifice,  285. 

Guest-friends  among  Greeks,  137. 

Guest-houses : in  Kerek,  86 ; in 

Egypt,  Arabia,  and  Syria,  95. 

“Guests  of  God,"  123-125,  131,  405. 

Hagar  and  Ishmael,  12,  388  f. 

Haifa,  funeral  custom  at,  172  f. 

Hail,  hospitality  in,  94. 

Hair,  house  of,  405. 

Hair  ornaments  : for  bride,  41 ; worn 
by  all  classes,  321. 

Hajj : wedding  scene  on  route  of, 
45-58  ; Meccah  pilgrimage  called, 
334 ; Muhammadan  idea  of,  342 ; 
antiquity  of  institution,  342  ; mean- 
ing of  Arabic  word,  342,  346  f. 

Hajji  Tarfa,  reference  to,  326  f. 

Hajjis,  pilgrims  to  Meccah  called, 
334- 

Hakeem  : healing  expetfted  from,  306- 
318;  safe  from  harm,  314. 

Hakim  (see  Hakeem). 

Hall  of  Two  Truths,  136. 

Hamayde  shaykh  s hospitality,  87  f. 

Hamd,  244  f , 250. 

Hamlin,  Cyrus,  quotation  from,  no, 
115  f. 

Hamor:  and  Shechem,  13 ; and  Jacob, 
22  f ; sons  of,  355. 

Hand-shaking,  ceremony  of,  15. 

Hands  : cleansed  for  prayer,  266  ; 
position  of,  in  prayer,  266  f.  ; kiss- 
ing high-priest's,  380. 

Harimtu  and  Ea-bani,  legend  of,  63  f. 

Hassan,  Mosk  Sultan,  265. 

Hat -bands  at  funerals  in  England, 
America,  and  Egypt,  165. 

Hatteen,  battle  of.  reference  to,  362. 

Hauran,  Arabs  of  the,  124. 

Hazael,  campaigns  of,  357. 

Head-bands  as  bridal  ornaments,  41. 


Heads  of  children  marked  with  blood 
at  Samaritan  passover,  379. 
.Healing : ofblind  at  Jericho,  301-303  ; 
ministry  of,  304 ; in  Syrian  country, 
305;  apostles'  work  of,  313. 

“ Heard  for  their  much  speaking," 
257,  263. 

Heber  the  Kenite,  127. 

Hebrew  posture  in  prayer,  268  f. 

Hebrew  ritual,  372. 

Hebrew  word : for  “ the  way,”  219  f ; 
for  “borrowing”  and  “asking," 
327  ; chag.  meaning  of,  346  f. 

Hebrews  : marriage  with  relatives 

among  ancient,  31  f. ; idea  of  future 
life  among,  199;  references  to,  202, 

220,  235,  291,  342,345-347.  395-397. 
407  f. ; pilgrimage  idea  among,  340 ; 
Epistle  to,  writer  of,  345  f. 

Hebrides,  pilgrimage  survivals  in , 352  f. 

Hebron:  burtung  - place  of  Jacob, 

169  f.  ; tombs  at,  195  ; preparing 
the  way  near,  217 ; references  to, 
244  f.,  230,  270,  298,  335. 

Hejaz:  coffee-berries  from,  78  ; hos- 
pitalitv  in,  88  f 

Heliopolis,  sacred  pilgrimage  to,  340. 

Herakles,  pillars  of,  222  f. 

; Herbs,  bitter,  at  Samaritan  passover, 

! 377.  382  f. 

Hermits  as  “people  of  blessing,”  303. 

Hermon,  reference  to,  356. 

Herod,  slaying  of  infants  by,  192. 

Herodotus : cited,  146,  153,  305  f., 
340  ; mourning  in  time  of,  148 ; 
quotation  from,  222. 

“ Heth,  sons  of,”  241. 

High-priest  at  Samaritan  passover, 
375  f-.  378-383- 

Highways:  in  Holy  Land,  216-218, 
356  f.  ; of  rulers,  219  f.,  356  f.  ; to 
cities  of  refuge,  223. 

Hill  of  the  Golden  Calf,  308. 

Hilprecht,  H.  V.  : quotation  from, 

] 89  f,  303  f. ; cited,  330  f. 

Hindoo  child-brides,  58. 

Hindoo  sacrament  of  marriage,  11. 

Hindoo  wedding,  circuiting  fire  at, 
348  fi 

Hindoostan,  reference  to,  314. 

History,  first  great  campaign  of,  357. 

Hittite  princess  and  Rameses  II.,  mar- 
riage between,  25. 

Hobab  as  guide  to  Israelites,  402. 


Topical  Index. 


421 


Hodos,  meanin"  of  Greek  word,  219  f. 

Holland,  F.  W.,  quotation  from,  281. 

Holy  City  : reference  to,  269,  273  f. ; 
pilgrims  to,  298,  335,  339. 

Holy  Land:  roads  in,  216-218;  pre- 
parations for  prayer  in,  257;  Easter 
pilgrimages  in.  343 ; scenery  and 
associations  of,  355. 

Holy  place,  praying  toward,  266,  268- 
270.  272,  382  f. 

Holy  Sepulcher,  circuiting,  348  f. 

Holy  Sepulcher,  Church  of  the,  335. 

Holy  Week  in  Palestine,  298,  335-339. 

“ Homam,”  sacrifice  of,  at  wedding, 
349- 

Honey,  land  of,  278,  283. 

Hornblende,  black,  in  desert,  395. 

Horses : sacrifice  of,  168  ; buried  with 
dead.  176. 

Horus,  reference  to,  248. 

Hoshea,  reference  to,  359. 

Hospital  of  Knights  of  St.  John,  330. 

Hospitality : Oriental  estimate  of,  73- 
75;  meaning  of  word,  75  ; payment 
not  accepted  for,  80;  the  virtue  of 
barbarians,  81 ; in  Syria,  Egypt,  and 
the  Hejaz,  88  f. ; among  Druses,  91 ; 
in  Central  Arabia,  94;  east  of  Jor- 
dan, 95  f.  ; in  Central  Asia,  96  f. ; 
of  Toorkomans,  96  f.  ; in  Eastern 
Turkey,  98  ; in  India,  98  f.,  120; 
in  China  and  Japan,  99 ; among 
Tawarah  Bed'ween,  100  f. ; abuse 
of,  loi,  105  ; unwritten  law  of, 
105 ; covenanting  in,  105-142  ; ol 
'Azazimehs,  107  f.;  sharing  of,  with 
God,  109 ; for  enemy  or  stranger, 
113-115;  overriding  desire  for  blood- 
avenging,  116-124;  religious  basis 
of,  123;  as  viewed  by  Occidentals, 
132  f. ; antiquity  of,  136  f. ; among 
American  Indians,  138  f. ; lessons 
from  virtue  of  Oriental,  141  f.  ; 
paramount  to  grief,  150  f. ; “sacri- 
ficing “ as  adt  of,  285  ; in  drink  of 
water,  361. 

“ Host,"  meaning  of  word,  75. 

“ Hostile,"  meaning  of  word,  75. 

" House  of  hair,"  125,  405. 

Howajji,  reference  to,  299. 

“ Howling  ” darweeshes,  258-260, 265, 
376. 

Hue,  M.,  quotation  from,  349  f. 

Huldah,  reference  to,  68. 


Huleh,  funeral  feast  in,  i66  f. 

Hyreanus,  reference  to,  359. 

Ibex  for  food  in  desert,  286. 

Ibn  Arooks,  seeking  wife  among,  31. 

Ibn  Rashid,  Emeer  ^luhammad,  refer- 
ence to,  94. 

Ibraheem,  reference  to,  117. 

" Ibraheem,"  reference  to,  287  f. 

Ibrahim  Pasha,  reference  to,  227. 

Ilias,  reference  to,  98. 

“ In  the  Hebrides,"  reference  to,  352. 

Incense-sellers  in  Jerusalem,  335. 

India:  betrothals  in,  8 ; child-marriage 
in,  10  f.  ; child -widows  in,  26; 
honored  married  life  in,  59;  hos- 
pitality in,  98  f.,  120 ; food  for  dead 
in,  176;  wife -burning  in,  177; 
medical  missions  in,  315  ; circuits 
in,  348  f. 

Indians„A.merican : hospitality  among, 
138  f. ; burial  customs  among,  176. 

Inscriptions : of  Telloh,  153  ; at  en- 
trance to  cavernous  mines,  398. 

Intoned  : prayer  in  desert,  256  f. ; 
chant,  351 ; recital  of  story  of  pass- 
over,  376,  378. 

Inventor  called  “ father,"  241. 

Iona,  traces  of  pilgrimage  in,  352. 

Ipsambul,  reference  to,  248. 

Ireland,  funeral  procession  in,  162  f. 

Irish,  hospitality  among,  122  f. 

Irish  wake : a survival  of  mourning, 
152 ; feast  accompanying,  167  ; refer- 
ence to,  198. 

Isaac:  and  Abraham,  12;  and  Rebe- 
kah,  13,  18,  22,  32  f.,  43  ; his  cove- 
nant-feast, 108  ; tomb  of,  195  ; old 
home  of,  257  f. ; and  Jacob,  406. 

Isaiah,  prophecy  of,  174,  225,  227, 
318,  333  f- 

Ishmael : seeking  wife  for,  12  ; as  hun- 
ter in  wilderness,  388  f. 

Ishmaelites,  golden  ear-rings  of,  324. 

Ishtar  lamenting  over  Dumuzi,  197. 

Isis  and  Osiris,  197  f. 

Israel : as  betrothed  of  the  Lord,  41  f. ; 
citiesof  refuge  in,  126  f.  ; mothers  of, 
likened  to  Rachel,  191 ; mourning 
of  daughters  of,  196;  king  of,  214, 
358  ; references  to,  233  f.,  240, 
286  f.,  297,  358,  389  f. ; “children 
of,"  241,  256  f.,  331,  344,  380,  389; 
queen-mothers  of,  251 ; sustaining 


422 


Topical  Index. 


host  of,  292  f.  ; descendants  of, 
359- 

Israelites  : and  Giheonites,  109  f.  ; 
references  to,  191,  214,  230,  277, 
280  f,,  286  f,  289,  291  f,  327,  331, 
402  f. ; diredfed  to  build  roads,  223  ; 
treasured  wealth  of,  325  ; living  in 

, booths,  344;  crossing  Jordan  on  dry 
land,  374;  prostrating  themselves  at 
mention  of  Jehovah,  377. 

Italionote  Greeks,  reference  to,  223. 

Italy,  funeral  processions  in,  162. 

Izdubar  epic  of  Chaldeans,  63. 

Jabal:  father  of  tent-dwellers,  239; 
“ daughter  of,”  242. 

Jacob  : and  Hamor,  22  f. ; his  service 
in  lieu  of  dowry,  23  ; and  Rachel, 
26,  62-64;  Laban,  34,  108; 

funeral  procession  of,  169  f. ; refer- 
ences to,  191,  257  f.,  366;  before 
Pharaoh,  341 ; tradition  of,  on  Ge- 
rizim,  374  ; his  home  in  Valley  of 
Shechem,  358. 

Jacob's  Well,  355-370,  372. 

Jael  and  Sisera,  127-129. 

Jaffa : market-day  at,  299 ; sick  at, 
310. 

Jaffa  Gate  of  Jerusalem,  299,  335. 

Jairus,  Jesus  at  house  of,  161  f. 

James,  Apostle,  reference  to,  305. 

Japan  : hospitality  in,  99  ; ancient 
religion  of,  230 ; medical  missions 
in,  315- 

Jebel  Moosa,  convent  at  foot  of,  283. 

Jebeleeyeh,  reference  to,  283. 

Jehoash,  reference  to,  359. 

Jehoiakim,  reference  to,  151. 

Jehovah : Samaritan  temple  unau- 
thorized by,  372;  prostrations  at 
mention  of,  377. 

Jehu,  reference  to,  359. 

Jephthah's  daughter,  reference  to, 
196. 

Jeremiah  ; his  references  to  mourn- 
ing, 151,  153,  161,  191  f,  196. 

Jericho  : healing  of  blind  in,  301-303  ; 
circuit  of  walls  of,  347. 

Jerusalem  : wedding  processions  in, 
45  ; references  to,  151,  359  ; mourn- 
ing for  Josiah,  196;  preparing  the 
way  to,  225 ; Paul  as  prisoner  in, 
242  ; sacredness  of,  to  Muham- 
madans, 272  ; its  desolation,  272  f. ; 


! pilgrims  going  to,  298  f.,  339,  342  f. ; 
j diseased  in,  300;  bazaars  of,  325; 
^ passover  feast  at,  338  ; circuits  at, 
347 ; Easter  pilgrimage  to,  348  ; its 
royal  splendor  under  David  and 
Solomon,  359. 

Jessup,  H.  H.  : quotation  from,  305. 

Jesus:  at  Jacob's  Well,  106  f.,  355, 
359-361,  364  f,  373;  his  reference 
to  hospitality,  139  ; at  house  of 
Jairus,  161  f. ; resurrecStion  of,  178  ; 
death  of,  192  ; as  the  Way,  233-235  ; 
his  reference  to  "father,  " 242  f;  on 
Mount  of  Olives,  273-276 ; disciples 
of,  274  f.,  366  f.;  lepers  appealing 
to,  301  ; his  ministry  of  healing,  301- 
304,  312;  healing  blind  in  Jericho, 
302  f. ; giving  apostles  power  over 
unclean  spirits,  313  ; footprints  of, 
336  ; words  of,  to  life’s  pilgrims, 
347  f. ; sowing  and  reaping  in  days 
of,  364 ; temptation  of,  in  wilder- 
ness, 390. 

Jew  and  Samaritan,  360  f.,  363. 

Jews:  as  trinket-sellers  in  Jerusalem, 
335  ; belief  as  to  Feast  of  Taber- 
nacles, 345  ; circuit  of  synagogue 
among,  348  ; celebrating  passover 
feast,  371. 

Jewel  in  the  Lotus,  261. 

Jewelry:  bride's  portion  invested  in, 
20;  its  prominence  among  women, 
38, 50  f. ; loaded  on  slave  girls,  38  f ; 
offered  for  tabernacle  in  wilderness, 
320;  of  silver  and  gold,  331  f. 

Jewish  council,  reference  to,  242. 

Jewish  disciples  of  John  and  Jesus, 
264. 

Jezebel : as  queen,  68 ; prophecy 

against,  174. 

Jezreel  : Bed'wy  hospitality  near,  76- 
81 ; references  to,  174, 214;  Gideon’s 
triumph  at  plain  of,  324. 

Joab:  slaying  of,  129  f.;  and  .Abner, 
130  f. ; father  of  Ge-harashim,  240. 

Job  : references  to.  179,  240. 

Joel,  reference  to,  135. 

John  the  Baptist  : his  reference  to 
Christ  as  bridegroom,  60  f ; preach- 
ing in  the  wilderness,  234  ; teach- 
ing his  disciples  to  pray,  264. 

Jordan:  hospitality  east  of,  95  f. ; 

primitive  customs  east  of,  124  f ; 
Hebrews  crossing,  347 ; valley  of. 


Topical  Index. 


423 


356 ; tradition  as  to  memorial  stones 
in.  374- 

Joseph  : references  to,  102,  191,  240  ; 
burying  lacob  in  Hebron,  169  f.  ; 
field  bought  by  Jacob  for,  355; 
burial -site  in  Shechem  of,  358. 

Joseph  and  Mary  of  Nazareth,  27. 

Josephus,  quotation  from,  223. 

Joshua;  land  dedicated  to  God  under, 
358  ; responsive  reading  of  the  Law 
under,  366  ; reference  to,  374. 

Tosiah,  King,  mourning  over,  196. 

Jotham:  reference  to,  271  f. ; his  para- 
ble to  people  of  Israel,  358  f. 

Jubal,  father  of  musicians,  239. 

Judah  : references  to,  196,  233  ; “ sons 
of,  ” 241  : queen-mothers  of,  251. 

Judea  and  Galilee,  road  between,  356. 

Judges,  days  of:  sharing  spoil  in,  324; 
Abimelech  declared  king  in,  358. 

Jugglers  in  wedding  processions,  61. 

Justinian,  reference  to,  283. 

Ka'BAH  : praying  toward,  269  ; refer- 
ence to,  272  ; circuit  of,  349. 

Kadesh  : reference  to,  292;  “ wilder- 
ness of,”  388;  water  at,  405. 

Kadesh-bamea  : resting-place  of  He- 
brews, 291  f. ; sudden  halt  at,  323. 

Kadesh-on-Orontes,  battle  of,  25. 

“ KantufFa,”  references  to,  226. 

Karnak,  reference  to,  396. 

" Kasd,"  reference  to,  342, 

Kedor-la'omer : reference  to,  271; 
his  attempt  to  control  road,  356  f. 

" Keen,"  the,  in  Irish  mourning,  152  f. 

Kerek,  hospitality  in,  86  f. 

Khaleefs;  hospitality  in  time  of,  117  f. ; 
city  of,  271. 

Khaleel  Omar,  reference  to,  362. 

Khaleel  Sekhali,  reference  to,  172  f. 

Khedive's  forerunner,  215. 

Khonds  : proverbs  of,  98  ; hospitality 
among,  98  f. ; sacredness  of  sanctu- 
ary obligations  among,  120. 

Kibroth-Xattaaveh,  Israelites  at,  286  f. 

Kid,  sacrifice  of,  93,  too  f.,  285. 

Kidron,  reference  to,  273. 

King:  kept  from  burial  by  charges 
against  him,  173;  as  living  repre- 
sentative of  Deity,  249. 

“King's evil,”  king's  touch  to  cure,  310. 

King's  highway,  219  f.,  228. 

Kings  of  Midian,  325. 


Kiriath-sepher,  wife  promised  for  cap- 
ture of,  12. 

Klunzinger:  quotation  from,  149,183; 
cited,  305. 

Kneeling : in  prayer,  267-269,  376 ; at 
Tomb  of  the  "Virgin,  337. 

Knights  of  St.  John,  hospital  of,  330. 

Koordistan,  hospitality  in,  150  f. 

Kordn  (see  Quran). 

Korea,  medical  missionary  in,  317. 

Laban  : and  Jacob,  34  ; reference 
to,  108. 

Lamas,  monasteries  of  Booddhist,  350. 

Lamasery,  processions  to  and  circuit 
of,  350. 

Lamb,  paschal  sacrifice  of : at  Jerusa- 
lem, 371;  at  Gerizim,  375-383. 

Lambs  ; sacrifice  of,  for  guest,  285. 

“Lamentation,  skilful  in,”  153-156 
(see,  also,  Mourning). 

Lamps  : sent  with  wedding  invita- 
tions, 35  ; placed  in  tombs,  194 

“ Land  and  the  Book,  The,”  refer- 
ence to,  299. 

Land:  of  Promise,  223,357;  of Gilead, 
356. 

Lane  : quotation  from,  171  f.,  249  f. 

Lane  and  Klunzinger,  quotation  from, 

305- 

Latin  Christians  in  Jerusalem,  335, 

Law  : of  hospitality  as  to  enemy,  113- 
115;  first  table  of  the,  247;  words 
of  the,  366. 

Lawgiver  commanding  pilgrimages, 
339  f- 

Laying  on  hands  for  cure  of  scrofula, 
310. 

Lazar-house,  Egypt  as  a,  296. 

Lazarus  of  Bethany,  Martha  at  grave 
of,  177  f. 

Leah,  reference  to,  58. 

Leathern  “bottles,"  401. 

Lebanons  : betrothal  in,  14  ; hos- 

pitality in,  83  f.,  89-91,  Ii3f.  ; refer- 
ence to,  227 ; visit  of  Prince  of 
Walesin,  311 ; an  experience  in,  330. 

Leben  carried  in  bags,  76  f. 

LeBruyn,  Corneille:  cited,  192  f. 

Legends ; of  Ishtar,  63  ; of  ancient 
East,  63-68 ; of  romantic  love  in 
Arabia,  Syria,  Turkey,  and  Persia, 
64  f. 

Lentils  for  food,  283,  364. 


424 


Topical  Index. 


Leonowens,  Mrs.,  quotation  from,  59. 

Lepers:  in  Palestine.  298-301,313;  in 
Syria,  298,  300;  village  of,  in  Jeru- 
salem, 299  ; of  Constantinople,  304. 

I.eprosy : hand,  lips,  and  nose,  eaten 
away  by,  301  : distortion  of,  301. 

Levite,  references  to,  84  f.,  2.p,  352. 

Levitical  law  : on  equivalent  value  of 
daughter,  23;  on  betrothal,  26  f; 
of  divorce.  37  ; of  " peace  offering," 
109  ; prohibiting  blood-letting,  160 

Life  : beyond  grave,  primitive  belief 
in, 201  f..  207;  blood  is,  285. 

“ Lifting  of  the  veil  ” at  wedding,  43. 

Lizards  and  serpents  in  desert,  400. 

Loftie.W.  J.  : cited,  92. 

London  : funeral  of  Wellington  in. 
170;  British  Museum  in,  324, 

Lord's  Prayer,  references  to,  175, 
263  f.  275. 

Lot : and  his  guests,  84  ; reference  to, 
98  f. ; his  abode  in  Sodom,  342. 

Louvre,  the,  museum  of,  324. 

I^ove,  romantic,  6i-65 

Lower  Egypt,  pilgrims  from,  337. 

Luke's  account  of  blind  man  at  Jeri- 
cho, 302. 

I^uxor,  reference  to,  396. 

Lydia,  reference  to,  270. 

Lynch,  Lieut,,  quotation  from,  95  f. 

"Ma'ass.^LAME,"  parting  blessing,  80, 

Macedon,  Alexander  of,  campaigns 

of.  357 

Maine. Sir  H.  S.,  quotation  from,  246  f. 

Mamlook  Beys,  reference  to,  121. 

Manna,  miracle  of  277.  283.  291-294. 

Maps,  uninspired,  reference  to,  292. 

Marah  murmuring  of  Israel  at,  297. 

Marcy,  General ; cited,  282  f 

Mark's  account  of  blind  man  at  Jeri- 
cho, 302. 

Mark  Twain  ’ in  Holy  Land,  300, 

Maronite  Christians,  reference  to.  333. 

Marriage : regarded  as  divine  union, 
II  ; for  diplomatic  reasons,  25  f; 
“by  capture,"  based  on  sentiment. 
29  f ; of  blood  relatives,  30  32  ; 
preparations  for,  in  East,  32;  first 
glimpse  of  bride  at,  58-60  ; pilgrim- 
age procession  at,  164 ; circuit  of 
altar  at.  348. 

Marriage  contract  and  betrothal  con- 
tract equivalent,  21  f 


Marriage  customs  in  ancient  Egypt 
and  Babylon,  22. 

Marriage  service  of  Church  of  Eng- 
land. II. 

Marriage  settlement,  arranging,  9. 

Martha  at  her  brother's  grave,  177  f 

Martyrs'  Bay,  reference  to,  352. 

Mary  and  Joseph,  reference  to.  27. 

“ Match-makers"  in  Egypt,  Syria, and 
China,  21. 

Matthew  s account  of  blind  man  at 
Jericho,  302. 

Meaning  : of  “ the  way.”  219  f ; of 
Chinese  words  tao  and  shin.  229  f ; 
of  " father  " in  the  East,  227-239  ; 
of  " wuzoo,"  266;  of  " qiblah,  " 269; 
of  “ mihrab,  " 270  ; of  " Hajj,"  342  ; 
of  chtj^,  346  f 

Mecc.ih ; tradition  of,  104 ; turning 
toward  in  worship,  258,  266,  268- 
273  ; niches  toward,  270;  value  of 
prayer  at,  272;  pilgrimage  to,  291, 
334;  circuiting  Ka'bah  at,  349. 

Media,  royal  road  through.  221  f 

Medical  miracles,  preponderance  of 

313  f- 

Medical  missionaries,  importance  of 
311,  314-318. 

“ ^ledicine-man  ” in  desert,  306. 

Mediterranean  Sea,  reference  to,  378. 

Megiddo,  plain  of  reference  to,  196. 

Melchizedek : spirit  and  service  of 
366  ; blessing  Abraham,  373. 

Merab  and  Saul,  13. 

Mesopotamia,  hospitality  in,  106. 

Mica  and  quartz  in  desert.  393. 

Micah,  reference  to.  150,  240. 

Michal,  betrothal  of  13. 

Midian,  kings  of  325. 

" Midian.  sons  of  " 241. 

Midianites,  Gideon's  battle  with,  324. 

" Mihrab,"  meaning  of,  270  f 

Milk  : living  for  years  on,  284  ; of 
dromedaries,  289. 

Milton  : cited,  30. 

“Minstrels;  at  house  of  Jairus,  162; 
music  of  in  mourning,  179. 

Min  Yong  Ik,  reference  to,  317. 

Miracle  ; of  manna.  277;  of  supply 
of  food.  292;  of  healing  by  Jesus, 
313  f ; of  stoppage  of  flow  of  Jor- 
dan. 374;  water  supplied  by;  405. 

Mirage  in  desert,  400. 

Miriam,  reference  to,  68. 


Topical  Index. 


425 


Mission  : of  wakeel,  17-22  ; of  Chris- 
tianity, 71  f. 

Monasteries  : circling,  in  India,  349  ; 
of  Booddhist  lamas,  350. 

Mongolia:  hospitality  from,  to  Abys- 
sinia, in;  Booddhists  of,  350;  pil- 
grims from,  350. 

Monier- Williams,  Sir  Monier  : cited, 
59;  quotation  from,  261-263,  349 

Moors:  hospitality  of,  120;  mourn- 
ing among,  157  f. 

Moosa,  Jebel,  reference  to,  283. 

Moosa,  Shaykh  : hospitality  of,  77  f. ; 
reference  to,  244,  287,  328. 

Morality  of  Israelites,  320. 

Morier,  Sir  R B.  D.,  quotation  from, 
33,  65  f„  156. 

Morocco : mourning  customs  in,  157  f. ; 
pilgrimages  in,  351. 

Moses:  and  Zipporah,  12;  references 
to,  194,  202,  223,  231,  251,  293,  297, 
331  f , 402  ; Wells  of,  256  f ; his  re- 
quest to  Pharaoh,  346  f ; his  com- 
mand to  dedicate  land  to  God,  358; 
his  command  to  sacrifice  at  even, 
378  ; sacrificial  feast  instituted  by, 
384  ; his  training  in  wilderness,  389, 
396-398  ; and  Hobab,  402. 

Mosk  Akbar,  reference  to,  259. 

Mosk  Sultan  Hassan  in  Cairo,  265. 

Mosks : of  Alexandria,  212:  on  Mount 
of  Olives,  273  f. ; sick  at  door  of,  296. 

Moslem  creed,  solemn  chant  of,  352. 

Mother,  honor  to,  33,  251,  382. 

Mother-in-law,  reign  of,  in  Egypt,  251. 

Mound  of  the  Burden,  352. 

Mount  Gerizim,  references  to,  270  f., 
371-386. 

Mount  of  God,  395. 

Mount  of  Olives,  references  to,  273  f., 
299,  336  f. 

Mount  Sinai,  references  to,  194,  308. 

Mourners:  shrieking  chorus  of,  146; 
cutting  and  slashing  themselves, 
157  f. ; insincerity  charged  against, 
185-188  ; circling  grave,  193. 

Mourning:  in  Egypt,  143-148 ; centu- 
ries before  Moses,  145  f. ; customs  of, 
unchanged  by  time,  147 ; in  Barbary, 
155  f. ; in  South  Sea  Islands,  158  f. ; 
at  Atad.  169 ; long  after  death,  177- 
179,  183  f. ; description  of  week  of, 
179-183;  in  Eastern  cemeteries, 
188-190;  circle  of,  193. 


Mourning  veil  East  and  West,  193, 

Mu'azzin's  call  to  prayer,  256,  275. 

Muhammad:  on  duty  of  hospitality, 
140  ; his  efforts  to  stop  wailing,  170 ; 
" way  ’ of,  230-  praying  toward  Jeru- 
salem. 269  ; and  Hajj,  342. 

Muhammad’s  requestfor  "gift,”  329f. 

Muhammad  Ahmad,  reference  to,  329. 

Muhammad  Alee,  reference  to,  121. 

Muhammadanism  : its  relation  to 

other  beliefs.  269. 

Muhammadans  : law  of  divorce  of. 
36  ; wedding  preliminaries  among, 
j 49  ; wedding  party  at  prayers 
among,  37  ; funeral  service  of,  171  f. ; 
prayer  ritual  of,  256,  265-268  ; diffi- 
culty in  diredling  prayers  aright, 
271  f ; their  mosk  on  Mount  of 
Olives.  275,  336  ; Christian  hakeem 
respecfted  by,  316  ; in  Jerusalem, 
335  f ; their  idea  of  Hajj,  342. 

Muir,  Sir  W..  quotation  from,  316  f. 

Mukatteb,  Wady,  reference  to,  281. 

Mukhna,  Plain  of,  reference  to,  356. 

Mulberry  bush,  children  circling,  353. 

Muqam  of  prophet  or  shaykh,  195  f. 

Murderer  entertained:  by  son  of  his 
vidtim,  117-120  ; by  father  of  vic- 
tim, 120. 

Museums  of  Boolaq,  Turin,  the 
Louvre,  and  London,  324. 

Music  and  dancing  : at  wedding,  47; 
in  wedding  procession,  57  f. 

Musical  instruments,  use  of,  in  an- 
nouncing death,  148. 

Musleh,  Shaykh,  references  to,  244  f., 
250,  309  f. 

Nabi.us  : lepers  at  gate  of,  300  f ; 
near  site  of  Sychar,  373  ; reference 
to,  374  f ; Samaritans  of,  385. 

Nakhl  (see  Castle  Nakhl). 

Naples,  reference  to,  209  f. 

Napoleon  : funeral  of,  170 ; touching 
sick  at  Beyrout,  310. 

Nazareth  : mourners  from,  180  ; 

mourning  at  grave  in,  190;  mihrab 
near,  271  ; road  to,  298,  338. 

Nebuchadnezzar,  campaigns  of,  357. 

Neby  Saleh,  tomb  of,  349. 

Necho,  Pharaoh,  campaigns  of.  196, 
357- 

Necklaces  : as  bridal  ornaments,  41 ; 
worn  by  all  classes,  321 ; of  coins,  326. 


426 


Topical  Index. 


Negeb,  the : meeting  of  Isaac  and 
Rebekah  in , 43  ; adventure  in.  107  f.; 
boundary  of,  291. 

Nejd,  reference  to,  31. 

New  England,  funeral  feast  in,  168. 

New  Testament,  references  to,  235  f 

New  York : references  to.  162,  215  ; 
funeral  of  Grant  in,  170. 

Niches  of  direction  in  prayer.  270. 

Night  traveling  in  East,  339. 

Nile  : references  to,  143. 215,  296,356. 

Nineteenth  Dynasty  roadmaking,  220. 

Nirvana,  way  to.  230. 

Noah ; God's  command  to,  116  : claim 
that  altar  was  erected  on  Gerizim 
by,  374- 

Noor  al  Deen  Alee,  tale  of,  40. 

North  American  Indians,  burial  cus- 
toms among,  176. 

North  -American  Review  : cited,  10  f 

North  Morocco,  pilgrimages  in,  351. 

Nose-pins  as  bridal  ornaments,  41. 

Nose-rings : as  bridal  ornaments,  41 ; 
worn  by  women,  326. 

Nubia:  funeral  feast  in.  165  f;  pebbles 
on  gra%-e  in.  175  f.;  gold-mines  of,220. 

“ Nuptial,"  meaning  of  word,  43. 

OB.\ni.\H  of  Samaria,  reference  to, 
109  f. 

Occidental  view  of  Oriental  things,  7. 

Oholah  and  Oholibah  rebuked  for 
breach  of  espousals,  42. 

Oil,  olives,  and  honey,  land  of,  278. 

Old  Testament : silence  of,  as  to  future 
life,  198  f.,  202-206  ; unique  inspira- 
tion of  writers  of,  204  f ; references 
to,  214,  232-235,  278  ; as  Soul's 
Picture  Book.  387. 

Olives,  land  of,  278,  356. 

Olives,  Mount  of,  273,  299. 

Omar  and  Hormozan,  362. 

On,  reference  to,  396. 

Orange  : bread  in  shape  and  size  like, 
284  ; hard  crust  preferred  to,  308  f. 

Orangeman  and  Roman  Catholic, 
tradition  of,  123. 

Ordinary  day'ssupply  of  food,  280-283. 

Oriental  forms  of  prayer,  263  f. 

Oriental  hospitality,  73-142,  328.  381  f. 

Oriental  law  regarding  woman's  prop- 
erty, 36. 

Oriental  social  life  : advantage  of  its 
study,  1-6. 


Oriental  " way,"  230. 

Orientalsdemonstrative,  155, 377,382^ 

Origin  of  the  rosary.  175  f. 

Orissa,  hospitality  in,  98. 

Ornaments  ; offerings  of  Israelites  of. 
319  f. ; of  silver  or  gold,  319-327 ; 
hoarding  of  personal,  321  f. ; un- 
earthed from  Egyptian  tombs,  324. 

Osiris,  Isis  lamenting  over,  197. 

Osman,  reference  to,  121. 

Ostrich  eggs  on  walls  of  tombs,  194. 

Othniel's  service  in  lieu  of  dowry,  23. 

Outlook  from  star,  supposed,  3-6. 

Oven  : for  roasting  paschal  lamb,  375, 
380,  383  f. ; worshiping  at  an,  383. 

O.x,  sacnfice  of,  166  f. 

Palestine;  hospitality  in,  76-81; 
funeral  custom  in,  172  ; description 
of  mourning  scene  in.  179-183 ; 
mourning  party  in,  190;  muqams 
in,  195;  dirges  in,  202;  roads  in, 
216-218;  contrast  of  desert  with, 
278  ; blind,  crippled,  and  sick  in, 
298 ; calls  for  healing  in,  300,  306, 
312;  as  a great  hospital,  312  ; travel- 
ing at  night  in,  339;  Greek  Church 
in.  348;  beautiful  scenery  of,  356; 
sowing  and  reaping  at  once.  363. 

Palmer,  E.  H.,  reference  10,46;  quo- 
tation from.  284,  342. 

“ Panacea  for  all  evil,  " 261. 

Papyri : romantic  love  in,  64 ; forms 
of  prayer  in,  264. 

" Paran,  the  wilderness  of,"  388. 

Parched  corn  as  food,  282-284, 289. 323. 

Parents,  reverence  for,  249-251,  382. 

Paris:  funeral  of  Napoleon  in,  170; 
museum  of  the  Louvre  in,  324. 

Paschal  lamb.  371.  375-385. 

Pasha's  forerunner,  215. 

Passion  Week,  reference  to,  375. 

Passover  : feast  of,  at  Jerusalem,  298, 
338 ; fulfilled  in  Christ.  344 ; of 
Samaritans  at  Gerizim,  371-386; 
feast  of,  not  for  foreigners,  382 ; 
reciting  story  of.  384. 

" Path  of  V'irtue,"  230. 

Patriarchal  beard,  advantages  of,  245. 

Paul ; his  reference  to  hospitality,  95 ; 
reference  to.  140;  at  Ephesus,  235; 
his  reference  to  "father  " idea,  242  f ; 
and  Lydia.  270 ; his  training  in  wil- 
derness, 390. 


Topical  Tidex. 


427 


“ Peace  offering  ” of  Israelites,  109. 

Pebbles  strewn  over  grave  for  telling 
prayers,  175  f. 

Pennsylvania,  references  to.  162  f 

Pennsylvania,  University  of,  reference 
to,  326. 

Pentecost  commemorating  giving  of 
Law,  344. 

" People  of  Blessing,”  303. 

“ People  of  the  Path,”  230. 

Pepi-Na,  inscription  at  tomb  of,  201  f. 

Pera,  reference  to,  304. 

Persia : place  of  mother  in  kings’ 
household,  33  ; wailings  over  dead  ( 
in,  156  f. ; reference  to,  221,  233  ; 
road-making  in,  222 ; medical  mis- 
sions in,  315  ; pilgrims  from,  in 
Jerusalem,  335  ; reference  to  ruler, 
362. 

Peruvians,  marriage  of  blood  relatives 
among,  32. 

Peter  : reference  to,  140 ; his  reference 
to  David's  prophecy,  178 ; his  words 
to  sojourners  and  pilgrims,  346. 

Pharaoh  : sending  servants  to  bury 
Jacob,  i6g  ; Joseph  father  to,  240 ; 
Jacob  before.  341. 

Pharaoh  Xecho,  killing  of  Josiah  by 
archers  of,  196. 

Pharaoh  the  oppressor : as  a road- 
maker,22o;  Moses' demand  of,  346. 

Pharaohs,  earlier,  funeral  processions 
in  time  of,  164  f, 

Pharisees,  reference  to,  259. 

Pharonic  Road,  reference  to,  220. 

Philadelphia  : reference  to,  216 ; ex- 
perience in  desert  of  demist  from, 
307  f.  ; funeral  circuit  in,  353, 

Philae.  reference  to,  396. 

Philippi,  reference  to,  270, 

Physician:  influence  of  skilful,  311; 
safety  of,  in  East,  314. 

Pigeons  : sacrificed  at  wedding,  47. 

Pilgrimage : manifested  in  funeral 

processions.  164 ; to  Meccah,  291  ; 
to  Jerusalem.  335-339;  duty  of,  340; 
represents  life's  journey.  340,  407 f. ; 
to  Bubastis,  Busiris,  Sa'i's,  and  Heli- 
opolis, 340;  circuits  in,  346  f. ; to 
shrine  of  Abd  es-Salem,  351  ; in 
desert,  405  ; of  Abraham,  406. 

Pilgrimage  idea : its  antiquity,  339  f.  ; 
in  all  forms  of  religion,  342,  345 ; in 
games  of  children,  353. 


Pilgrims  : from  Europe  and  America, 
336  ; to  Holy  Sepulcher,  349  ; from 
China, Tibet,  Mongolia,  350;  carry- 
ing load  of  books,  351  ; substitute 
for  prostrations  among,  351. 

“Pilgrim's  Progress,”  referenceto,  346. 

“ Pin-money”  in  early  civilizations,  24. 

" Places  of  prayer  ” near  rivers,  270. 

Plain  of  the  Cornfields,  references  to, 
356.  364- 

Plain  of  Mukhna,  reference  to,  356. 

Plain  of  Sharon,  reference  to,  378. 

Plowing  and  reaping  at  once,  363  f. 

Poisoned  by  serpent  bite,  308. 

Polygamy,  system  of,  in  Eiast,  322. 

Polynesia,  mourning  custom  in,  158!. 

Polytheism,  temptation  to,  204-206. 

“ Pompey’s  Pillar,”  reference  to,  188. 

Porphyry,  purple,  in  desert,  395. 

Port  Said,  reference  to,  272. 

Posture  in  prayer  : diredtions  for, 

265 ; of  Christians,  267  ; no  one 
proper,  268. 

" Prairie  Traveler,”  reference  to,  282. 

Pray,  learning  how  to,  263-265,  267. 

Prayer : requests  for,  on  Egyptian 
funerary  tablets.  200-202 ; references 
to.  255.  385 ; intoning  of,  256  f.,  381 ; 
posture  in,  256,  265,  267-269,  337, 
350.  376  f. ; Oriental  forms  of,  261, 
263  f.  ; Egyptian  monuments  on, 
264;  nullified  by  slip  in  ritual,  267; 
morning  call  to,  274  f. ; place  of,  for 
all  nations,  275 ; for  sick,  315. 

Prayer-books  carried  in  circuit,  351. 

Prayer-chamber  in  tombs,  200  f. 

Praying  : to  be  seen  of  men,  255  f. ; to- 
ward holy  place,  266,  268-273,  375  L 

Praying-cylinders,  reference  to,  262. 

Preserving  funeral  wreaths  among 
Occidentals,  160. 

Priest : of  God  in  every  home,  125  f.  ; 
colledling  tears  of  mourners,  156  f. ; 
of  Baal,  261  ; Melchizedek  the 
kingly,  366  ; kissing  hand  of,  380. 

Primeval  nobleness  of  man,  206. 

Primitive  customs  founded  on  senti- 
ment, 29. 

Prince  of  Wales  in  East,  217  f.,  311. 

Prisoner  assured  of  his  life  by  drink- 
ing water,  362. 

Prisoner-guests  among  Arabs,  134-136. 

Procession : gifts  borne  in.  44 ; at  wed- 
I ding  ceremonies,  44,  51  f.,  164;  for 


428 


Topical  Index. 


bride,  and  for  groom,  44,  49-55,57  f.;  | 
funeral.  162-165,  168-171  ; of  priests, 
347 ; to  sacred  lamaseries,  350  ; cir- 
cuiting of  grave,  352  f. 

“ Processional"  in  Greek  and  English 
churches,  348. 

Proclamation  to  prepare  the  way,  226. 

Prostrations : in  prayer,  267  f.  ; in 
circumambulations,  350 ; at  men- 
tion of  name  of  Jehovah,  377. 

Protection  : through  marriage,  25  f. ; 
in  case  of  divorce,  322  f. ; securing, 
of  local  shaykhs,  402. 

Pro%-erbs  in  East,  64  f.,  75,  loi. 

Prussian  hospital  at  Beyrout,  330. 

Psalmist's  mention  of  pilgrimage,  341  f. 

Psalms,  reference  to,  341-343. 

Ptolemies,  the,  campaigns  of,  357. 

" Pyramid  of  Degrees,"  references  to, 
143.  146- 

Pyramids,  references  to,  215,  296. 

" Qiblah,"  meaning  of,  269  f. 

Qoheleth,  time  of,  reference  to,  148. 

Quail  for  food  in  desert,  286  f. 

Quartz  in  desert,  393,  395. 

Queen-mothers,  reference  to,  251. 

Queen  of  Roads,  reference  to,  224. 

Quran,  references  to,  184,  368. 

R.\,  reference  to,  248. 

Rabbinical  directions  for  prayer,  264  f. 

Rachel : her  betrothal  to  Jacob,  26, 
62  f. ; references  to,  38,  191  f. 

Rainy  season  in  Isast,  364. 

Raj  Coomar  Roy,  quotation  from,  10. 

Ramah,  lessons  from,  191-193. 

Rameses  II.:  his  marriage  alliance 
with  Hittites,  25  ; references  to,  220, 
248 ; campaigns  of,  357. 

Reaping:  near  'Ayn  Qadis,  292;  les- 
sonsfrom  sowing  and,  363-367 ; near 
Jacob's  Well,  364-366. 

Rebekah  : sought  for  wife  of  Isaac,  13, 
18,  22  ; -Abraham's  gift  to,  22  ; 
brought  to  Sarah's  tent,  32  f. ; veiled 
only  from  her  betrothed,  43. 

Red  cord  at  betrothal  and  wedding,  ii. 

Red  Sea : Wells  of  Moses  on.  256  f.  ; 
Hebrews  at.  281,  395:  "wilderness 
of  the,"  388. 

Refuge,  cities  of.  126  f . 223,  358. 

Refusal : of  money  for  hospitality,  88- 
91 ; of  drink  to  Prince  Arnald,  362. 


Regina  Viarum,  reference  to.  224. 

“Rejoicing  in  the  Law"  ceremony, 
348. 

Religion  : " ways  " in.  228  ; all  forms 
of  false,  368. 

Religious  duty  of  visiting  sick,  305. 

Religious  instruction  among  Muham- 
madans, 265. 

Renouf,  LePage,  quotation  from,  248. 

Rephidim,  water  miracle  at,  293,  405. 

Representatives  of  God,  guests  as,  125. 

Retem  shrub  of  desert,  390,  401. 

Reuel's  gift  of  Zipporah  to  Moses,  12. 

Revised  Version,  correctness  of.  327. 

Revolution  in  medical  treatment,  317. 

Rezin,  campaigns  of,  357. 

Rice  : for  guests,  93  ; in  funeral  feast, 
167;  for  dead,  176;  in  desert,  289. 

Ring  and  crown  at  weddings,  41. 

“ Ring  around  the  rosie  " game,  353. 

Rites  and  ceremonies  on  Gerizim, 
366,  372. 

Ritual,  original  Hebrew,  372. 

Road  of  Semiramis,  221  f. 

Road-making,  earliest  mention  of.  220. 

Roads : wretched  ones  in  Eiast,  216  f. ; 
in  Egypt,  in  .Arabia,  in  Palestine, 
216-218  ; preparing,  -for  coming 
ruler,  217  f. ; originally  built  for 
kings,  219-223. 

Robbers'  Fountain,  spring  called,  339. 

Robinson.  E.,  quotation  from,  too  f. 

Rogers,  Miss,  quotation  from,  172  f., 
179-183. 

Roman  Catholic  and  Orangeman,  tra- 
dition of,  123. 

Roman  Catholic  Church  : sacrament 
of  marriage  in,  ii  ; members  of, 
warned  against  funeral  displays, 
170  f. ; “ processional  " in,  348. 

Roman  Colosseum,  reference  to,  394. 

Roman  Empire,  military  roads  to,  223. 

Romantic  love : power  of,  in  primitive 
ages,  61-66 ; not  a modern  senti- 
ment, 62-66;  in  -Assyrian mythology, 
63  ; in  Egyptian  papyrus,  64. 

Rome  : hospitality  in,  137  f ; the 
world's  road-maker,  221,  224. 

Rosary  : its  origin,  175  f 

Royal  Road  of  Syria,  220. 

Russia:  food  for  dead  in,  176;  pil- 
grims from,  335;  Greek  Church  in, 
348. 

Ruth  gleaning  in  field,  360. 


Topical  Index. 


429 


Sabbath,  Samaritan,  on Gerizim,  385. 

Sacrament:  of  marriage,  ii;  of  com- 
munion, 285. 

Sacred  roll,  in  procession,  348. 

Sacredness;  of  betrothal,  26  : of  right 
of  asylum,  112-135  ; of  hospitality, 
134;  of  Jewish  tithe,  167. 

Sacrifice  : of  dromedary  and  pigeons, 
47-49 ; of  sheep,  47-49. 165  f.,  285  f, ; 
of  goat,  97,  165  f,,  285  f. ; of  kid, 
100  f, ; " of  completion,”  109  ; of 
cow,  165  f, ; of  buffaloes  and  horses 
of  deceased,  167;  of  " homam,"  at 
wedding,  348  f. ; of  paschal  lamb, 

371.  373.  378,  380. 

Sacrificial  outpouring  of  blood,  165. 

" Sacrificers,  the,"  office  of,  376. 

‘‘  Sacrificing:  ” meaning  of,  285. 

Sacrilegious,  Orientals  not,  195. 

St,  Catharine,  Convent  of,  283,  308, 

St,  John,  Knights  of,  hospital  of,  330. 

Saints  as  “ people  of  blessing,”  305, 
Sa'is,”  gaily  dressed.  213,  215. 

Sais,  sacred  place  of  pilgrimage,  340. 

Saladeen  and  King  of  Franks,  362. 

Salma,  father  of  Bethlehem,  240. 

Salt:  symbol  of  life,  in  f ; in  cake, 
280;  covenant  of,  361. 

Samaria,  Jesus  passing  through,  300  f. 

Samaritan  passover,  366,  371-386. 

Samaritan  temple  on  Gerizim,  372,  374. 

Samaritan  woman  at  Jacob's  Well, 
106,  359-363,  365,  373. 

Samnites,  reference  to,  223. 

Samson:  and  woman  of  Timnah,  13, 
23,  63  ; tomb  of,  195  f. 

Samuel's  warning  to  Israelites,  214. 

" Sanc'tified  ” for  prayer,  266-268. 

Sandluary  rights,  ii2f.,  125-127,  134  f. 

San  Francisco.  Chinese  burials  in,  176. 

Saqqarah  : wailing  at  tomb  at,  143-147 ; 
suffering  at.  296  ; tombs  of,  396. 

Sarah,  Rebekah  brought  to,  32  f. 

Sardis  and  Susa,  road  between,  222. 

Saul : daughterof, pledged toGoliath’s 
conqueror,  12;  and  his  daughters’ 
betrothals.  13  ; house  of,  130,  215. 

Sayce,  A.  H.,  quotation  from,  220  f. 

Scenery : of  Palestine,  355-357 ; of 
Arabian  desert,  392. 

Scrofula,  touch  stipposed  to  cure,  310. 

Sculpture,  Egyptian;  woman  in,67f.; 
of  tombs  and  temples,  324. 

Semakh,  shaykh  of,  reference  to,  93  f. 


Semiramis,  story  of,  68,  221  f. 

Semitic  and  Aryan  betrothals,  27. 

“Senator,”  meaning  of,  243. 

“ Senior,”  meaning  of,  243. 

Sennacherib,  campaigns  of,  357. 

Sentiment:  as  basis  of  primitive  cus- 
toms, 29  ; in  pilgrimage,  333. 

“ Sepulchres,  whited,”  referenceto,  57. 

Serbal,  reference  to,  396. 

Serpents  in  desert,  278,  308,  400. 

Sety  I.,  road-building  by,  220;  cam- 
paigns of,  357. 

Shahrazad  : cited,  40. 

Shakespeare,  quotation  from,  168. 

Shalmanezer,  campaigns  of,  357. 

Shame  a passion  with  Orientals,  102. 

Shammars,  hospitality  among,  115. 

Sharing;  of  food,  97,  105  f.,  no  f., 
165,  176,  283,  361  f.  ; of  water,  105- 
108, 112, 176, 361 ; of  covenant  hospi- 
tality with  God,  109. 

Sharon,  Plain  of,  reference  to,  378. 

Shaw,  Thomas,  quotation  from,  153  f. 

Shaykh  : tenure  of  power  of,  95  f. ; 
meaning  of.  243  ; young  men  some- 
times made,  243-243. 

Shaykh  Hamd,  reference  to,  245. 

Shaykh  Moosa,  references  to,  238, 
244,  287.  328. 

Shaykh  Musleh,  references  to,  244  f., 
250,  309  f. 

Shaykh  of  Affej  tribes,  326. 

Shaykh  Szaleeh,  muqam  of,  195  f. 

Shaykh  Talhouk,  reference  to,  114. 

Sheba,  Queen  of,  reference  to,  68. 

“ Shechasof  the  sir"  305. 

Shechem’s  love  for  Dinah,  13,  22  f , 63. 

Shechem,  ancient;  lepers  at,  300  f. ; 
as  a city  of  refuge,  358  ; site  of,  373. 

Shechem,  Valley  of,  references  to,  356- 
358,  364- 

Sheep,  sacrificing  of : at  wedding,  47  ; 
at  funeral,  165  f.  ; in  desert,  285  f. 

Shefa  'Amer,  mourners  from,  180. 

Sheridan,  funeral  of,  reference  to,  170, 

Shiloh,  reference  to,  356. 

Shin,  Chinese  word,  230. 

"Shintooism,”  meaning  of,  230. 

Shishak,  campaigns  of,  357. 

“ Shouting  ” darweeshes  (see  Howling 
darweeshes). 

Shrine  : of  Abd  es-Salem,  pilgrims  to, 
351  : at  Jerusalem,  268  f. ; at  Mec- 
cah,  269, 272, 349  (see,  aXso.Muqam). 


430 


Topical  Index. 


“Shur,  wilderness  of,"  388. 

Siam,  medical  missions  in,  313. 

Sibylline  Books,  hospitality  in,  138. 

Sick;  in  Egypt,  295-298,  305  f.,  315  ; 
in  Arabia,  297  f.,  306-310 ; in  Pales- 
tine, 298-304,  306,  310-318,  373;  in 
Syria, 298,  300, 305  f.,  315  ; in  Baby- 
lonia, 305  f. ; touched  by  Napoleon, 
310;  Prince  of  Wales  asked  to  heal, 
311 ; in  Lebanon,  311  f ; in  Persia, 
India,  China,  japan,  and  Siam,  315. 

Significance  : of  ring,  bracelet,  crown, 
41  ; of  bridal  veil,  42  f. 

Sikkeh  es-Sooltanieh,  road  called,  220. 

Siloam,  libation  of  water  from,  347. 

Silver:  abundance  of,  among  Israelites, 
319-322 ; jewels  of,  320,  325,  331  f. 

Silversmiths  of  bazaars  of  Cairo,  Jeru- 
salem, and  Damascus,  325. 

Sin  of  inhospitality,  131  f. 

“ Sin,  wilderness  of,"  388. 

Sinai : betrothal  among  Arabs  of,  27 ; 
Desert  of,  278  f.,  286,  289  f.,  349, 
395 ; resting-place  of  Hebrews,  291 ; 
•'  wilderness  of,"  388  ; supposed 
origin  of  name,  389. 

Sinai,  Mount : reference  to,  231 ; con- 
vent on,  283,308. 

Sinaitic  Peninsula,  hospitality  in,  100  f. 

Sisera  and  Jael,  127-129. 

Slayers,  office  of,  376,  378  f. 

Smelling-bottle  among  Occidentals.pa. 

Smoking  in  father's  presence,  250. 

Snefru,  builder  of  pyramid,  398. 

Social  life,teaching  of  Oriental, 206-208. 

Sodom  : destroyed  for  inhospitality 
in,  84,  133  ; protedlion  of  Lot's 
guests  in,  98  f. ; reference  to,  342. 

Solomon  : his  estimate  of  marriage, 
10  f. ; his  marriages  for  diplomatic 
reasons,  25  ; his  royal  causeway, 
223  ; his  prayer  at  dedication  of 
temple,  269 ; royal  splendor  of,  359. 

Song  of  death,  157  f. 

Songs:  of  grief,  181-184;  "of  De- 
grees," " of  the  Goings  Up,"  342. 

Sons:  of  God,  of  Heth,  of  Judah,  of 
Midian,  241;  of  Benjamin,  241  {.; 
of  Belial,  242. 

Soul's  Pidture  Book,  387,  391. 

South  Country,  adventure  in,  107  f. 

South  Sea  Islands,  mourning  m,  158  f 

Southern  Africa,  burial  custom  in, 176  f. 

Sowing  and  reaping,  292,  363-366. 


Sphinx,  reference  to  the,  215. 

Spinning  and  wailing  combined,  185  f. 

Springs  and  wells  in  desert,  404. 

Stamboul,  reference  to,  304. 

Stanley,  Dean : quotation  from,  311  f. ; 
cited,  385. 

Star,  supposed  outlook  from,  3-6. 

Stephen,  references  to.  242.  345  f. 

Stephens,  John  L. : cited,  310. 

Stevens.Thomas.  quotations  from,  82  f 

Stones  from  Jordan,  tradition  of,  374. 

Story,  W.  W..  quotation  from,  399  f. 

Stupas,  circling,  in  India,  349. 

Suez:  references  to,  281,  334. 

Sultan  Hassan.Mosk,  reference  to,  265. 

Sultan's  Road,  220. 

" Summary'  of  all  religion,"  261. 

“ Sunnah,”  reference  to,  230. 

" Sunnis."  reference  to,  230 

Sunt,  thorny,  of  wilderness,  389. 

Superstition  : about  bottled  tears,  157; 
as  to  healing  diseases,  310. 

Survivals ; of  blood-covenant,  15  ; of 
wailing,  152;  ofpilgrimage,348,352f. 

Susa  to  Sardis,  royal  road  from,  222. 

Sychar,  city  of,  reference  to,  372  f. 

Symbol  of  covenanting,  106. 

Symbolism  : in  pilgrimage,  334 ; of 
Feast  of  Tabernacles  unfulfilled, 
344  f. ; of  feasts  of  Hebrews,  344-346. 

Sympathetic  nature  of  Orientals,  155. 

Synagogue : references  to,  255,  312 ; 
'circuit  of,  348,  353. 

Synoptical  Gospels,  reference  to,  301  f. 

Syria,  Upper,  betrothal  in,  14. 

Syria:  " go-between  " in,  21 ; mar- 
riage of  blood  relatives  in,  31;  hos- 
pitality in,  81,  88f,  92,  95;  guest- 
houses in,  95  ; funeral  feasts  in,  165 ; 
Royal  Road  of,  220  ; disease  in,  300, 
305  f.,  315 ; healing  saints  from,  305 ; 
medical  missions  in,  315;  pilgrims 
from,  335.  337. 

Szaleh,  Shaykh,  tomb  of.  194. 

Szowaleha  Bed'ween,  reference  to,  85  f. 

Tabernacle,  offerings  for,  320. 

Tabernacles,  Feast  of,  340,  344  f.,  347. 

“ Tadmor,  in  the  wilderness,"  31. 

Taj  Mahal,  memorial  to  a wife,  71. 

Talmud  : on  road-repairing,  225  ; on 
visitation  of  sick,  305. 

" Tammuz,  weeping  for,"  196  f. 

Taff,  Chinese  word,  229  f. 


Topical  Index. 


431 


" Taouism,"  meaning  of,  229  f 

Tawarah  Bed'ween  : their  hospitality, 
too  f ; learning  to  pray,  267. 

Teaching:  to  pray,  263-265,  267; 
apostles  sent  healing  and,  313. 

Tear-cloths  among  Polynesians  and 
Chinese,  158  f 

Tears,  preserving,  156-160. 

Teeyahah  Bed'ween:  marriage  among, 
25  f. ; references  to,  107,  244,  310. 

Telloh,  inscriptions  of  153. 

Temple : bowing  toward,  272-274, 
375  f ; circuit  of  349  ; at  Jerusa- 
lem, 371 ; on  Gerizim,  372,  375  f 

Tent-dwellers,  references  to,  239,  274, 
289  f , 307,  347,  373,  375,  385,  406. 

Tents  : of  goats'  hair,  242,  326  ; wor- 
shipers in,  375,  383,385;  sprinkled 
with  blood  at  passover,  379. 

Tey.  Egyptian  architeiSt,  references  to, 
144,  146. 

Thebes,  references  to,  238. 

Thomson , W. M .,  quotation  from ,1 10  f , 
149  f,  154,  166-168,  227,  241  f,  299. 

Thotmes  III.,  campaigns  of,  357, 

‘‘  Three  days  of  grace,  " 105,  177  f 

Threshold,  lifting  bride  over,  53. 

Tibet : form  of  prayer  in,  261  ; Bood- 
dhist  pilgrims  from,  350. 

Tiglath-pileser,  campaigns  of  357. 

Tigris,  reference  to,  272. 

Time,  Arab's  idea  of  value  of  80. 

Timnah,  Samson  and  woman  of  13, 63. 

Tithe,  sacredness  of  167. 

"Toilet-money,"  in  ancient  times,  24. 

Token  of  covenant : between  husband 
and  wife,  41 ; breaking  of  137. 

Tolling  age  of  deceased  among  Occi- 
dentals, 148. 

Tomb : of  Shaykh  Szaleh,  194 ; of 
Abraham,  of  Isaac,  of  Jacob,  195; 
of  Samson,  195  f ; more  important 
than  house,  200 ; of  Pepi-Xa,  201  f ; 
ofthe'Virgin,337;  ofX'eby Saleh, 349.  [ 

Tombs  of  Egypt : walls  of  decorated 
with  scarfs,  194  ; ornaments  and 
paintings  unearthed  from,  324. 

Toorkomans:  hospitality  among,  pdf. ; 
chanting  daily  dirge  for  dead,  184. 

Touch:  of  tent  as  means  of  safety, 
113,  115;  healing  by,  311-313. 

Traditions:  ofMeccah,  104;  of  Jeru- 
salem, 336  f ; of  Gerizim,  374. 

Training,  Arabia  the  land  of  340  f 


" Treasury  of  all  wisdom,"  261. 

Tripoli,  sacredness  of  sanctuary  obli- 
gations in,  118-120. 

Trousseau,  bridal,  exhibit  of  44. 

Tully,  Richard,  quotation  from,  118, 
154  f , 157  f 

Tunis,  wedding  customs  in,  40. 

Turfa-shrub  in  desert,  401. 

Turin,  museum  at,  324. 

Turkey  : hospitality  in,  98.  no,  115  f ; 
medical  missions  in,  315;  pilgrims 
from,  335,  337. 

Turkomans  (see  Toorkomans). 

Turning  toward:  Meccah  in  worship, 
266,  268-272;  Jerusalem,  268  f. ; 
the  East,  269;  the  Ka'bah,  269. 

Unleavened  bread : feast  of  340, 
385 ; at  Samaritan  passover,  377, 383. 

Unveiling  of  bride,  58  f 

Unworthy  dead : no  burial  for,  171- 
175;  Bible  references  to  fate  of  173  f 

Upper  Egypt : mourningin,  183  ; gold- 
mines of  220;  pilgrims  from,  337. 

Urquhart,  quotation  from,  247. 

Utilitarian  aspedl  of  wedding  gifts,  35  f 

Vagrancy,  guards  against,  among 
Orientals,  104  f 

Valley  of  Shechem,  references  to, 

356-358. 

Vambery , quotations  from , 96-98 , 1 84  f 

Van  Lennep,  H.  J.  : quotation  from, 
10,  149;  cited,  306. 

Vedic  verse,  reference  to,  368. 

Veil : in  marriage  ceremony,  42  f ; lift- 
ing of  bride's.  58  f ; mourning.  East 
and  West,  193  ; Alexandria  women 
covered  with,  212. 

Venus  weeping  over  Adonis,  197. 

Via  Appia,  reference  to,  224. 

Virgjn,  tomb  of  the,  reference  to,  337. 

[ Volcanic  slag  in  desert,  400. 

Volney,  quotation  from,  92-94,  113  f, 
1 17  f 

Votive  offerings  at  tomb,  194  f 

Wady  Brissa,  hospitality  in,  89-91. 

Wady  Fayran,  poor  cripple  at,  308. 

Wady  Gharandel,  reference  to,  306. 

Wady  Mukatteb,  reference  to,  281. 

Wallers,  professional,  153-156,  187. 

Wailing  for  dead  : in  Eg)'pt,  143-148 ; 


432 


Topical  Index. 


survis-al  of,  in  Irish  wake,  152 ; Bible 
references  to,  160-162  ; forbidden 
by  Muhammad,  170  ; and  feasting. 
178  f. ; at  graves,  l8g. 

Wailing-place  of  Jews,  272  f. 

Wake  among  Irish,  152. 

Wakeel,  mission  of,  17-22. 

Wales,  Prince  of : preparing  the  way 
for,  217  f. ; asked  to  heal  sick,  311. 

Wallachian  slaves,  reference  to,  283. 

Walls,  circling,  in  India,  349. 

Warburton  : cited,  120  f. 

War-weapons  buried  with  dead,  176. 

Washington,  Sheridan's  funeral  in,  170. 

Water  ; sand  substituted  for,  21  ; 
drinking  together  in  covenant,  106- 
108,  112,  361  ; for  dead,  176;  “the 
gift  of  God,"  213;  in  bottles,  213, 
401 ; scarcity  of,  in  desert,  278  ; liv- 
ing without,  284;  miraculous  sup- 
ply of,  at  Rephidim  and  Kadesh, 
293  ; for  great  Hajj  in  desert,  334  f, ; 
for  grain  - field,  360  f..  365  ; from 
springs  and  wells  in  desert,  404-406. 

Water-carrier  of  Alexandria,  213. 

Waters  of  Bethesda,  cure  in,  300,  304. 

Wax  used  to  stanch  wounds,  317. 

Way;  preparing  the.  216-218;  of 
kingdom,  228  f.  ; of  duty,  of  privi-  ; 
lege,  of  safety,  229 ; of  Muhammad, 

“ of  holiness."  230;  of  God,  231,  235. 

" Ways  : " of  death,  of  evil,  231  ; 
numerous  references  in  Bible  to, 
235  ; thronged  by  beggars,  298  f. 

Wedding  : preparations  for,  32 ; in 
Damascus,  38;  in  Tunis,  40;  in 
Arabian  Nights,  description  of,  40  ; 
at  Castle  Nakhl,  45-58;  taking  low- 
est place  at,  55  f. ; first  glimpse  of 
bride  at,  58-60 ; circuits  at,  348, 353  f. 

Wedding  festivities : in  Jacob's  and 
in  Samson's  time,  34;  in  Egypt,  in 
Arabia,  in  Syria,  34;  at  Castle  Nakhl, 
47-49 ; sharing  sacrifice  in,  285. 

Wedding  gifts,  estimating  value  of,  35. 

Wedding  processions  ; gifts  borne  in, 
44 ; in  Cairo,  Constantinople,  Da- 
mascus, and  Jerusalem,  45 ; at  Castle 
Nakhl,  45-58  ; pilgrimage  in,  164. 

Wedding  symbols,  41  f. 

Weeks,  feast  of,  340. 

" Welee  : " mihrab  in  every,  270  ; cir- 
cling, 349. 

Wellington's  funeral  in  London,  170. 


Wells:  of  Beersheba,  io3,  257  f.  ; of 
Moses.  256  f. ; of  Jacob,  355-370, 
372  ; in  desert,  404-406. 

Western  Asia,  roads  in,  220  f.,  267. 

Whately,  Miss,  quotation  from,  36  f. 

Whittier,  J.  G,,  quotation  from,  368  f. 

Wife:  not  bought  with  dowrv,  9; 
method  of  seeking,  14  f.,  31;  be- 
trothed deemed  as  already,  26  ; 
divorced  at  any  time,  36  f.,  322; 
killed  and  buried  with  king,  176  f.  ; 
burning  of,  in  India,  177;  carrying 
wealth  on  her  person,  323. 

Wilderness:  of  Beersheba,  ofParan, 
of  Red  Sea,  of  Etham,  of  Shur,  of 
Sin,  of  Zin,  of  Sinai,  of  Kadesh,  388. 

"Wilderness,  The,"  in  Bible,  278, 

387  f- 

Wilkinson,  SirG.,  quotation  from,  173. 

Williams,  Talcott,  quotation  from, 
351  f. 

Woman  : as  “marketable  commodity,” 
24 ; will  of,  must  be  considered,  28 ; 
property  rights  of,  36  ; decked  with 
jewels,  38,  322-325  f. ; influence  of 
Christianity  on  position  of,  66  f ; 
honor  accorded,  in  earliest  times, 
66-71 ; her  right  of  succession  to 
throne,  67,  251 ; in  oldest  Egyptian 
sculpture,  67  f. ; description  of 
model,  69  f.;  of  Samaria  and  Jesus, 
106  f-.  355.  359-361,  364  f.  373- 

Women:  as  professional  wailers,  153- 
156,  187;  adorned  with  gold  and 
silver,  320,  325;  in  Easter  pilgrim- 
age, 337  ; circuiting  lamasery,  351  ; 
laboring  in  fields,  360;  sharing  in 
passover  feast,  385. 

“ Wuzoo,”  meaning  of,  266,  268. 

Y, \'K00B  Haroon,  reference  to,  382. 

Yohannah  el-Karey,  reference  to.  373. 

Yu  Shun,  reference  to,  253  f 

Z. \HOUET,  hospitality  at,  88. 

Zenobia,  queen  of  Palmyra,  68. 

Zeta,  shaykh  of,  hospitality  of.  89-91. 

Zeus,  protecting  deity  ofstrangers,i37. 

“ Zikrs  " of  dartveeshes,  259. 

“ Zin,  wilderness  of,  " 388. 

Zipporah  given  to  Moses,  12. 

Zoan,  reference  to,  396. 

Zoroastrianism,  truth  of,  368. 

Zugaret,  cries  of  rejoicing.  49  f.,  55. 


SCRIPTUIL\L  INDEX. 


GENESIS. 


’ TEXT 


PAGE 


EXODUS. 


TEXT 

PAGE 

24  : 1-67  . . 

...  4 

TEXT 

PAGE 

I : 

26  ...  . 

. . 368 

24  : 2-4  . . . 

...  32 

2 : 11-22 

391 

2 : 

18-24  • • 

. . 12 

24  : 10-21  . . 

2 : 15  . . 

389 

2 : 

24  ...  . 

• • 33 

24  : 33  • • • 

...  18 

2 : 16-21 

12 

4 : 

20  ...  . 

239,  242 

24  : 48  ... 

3:1  388 

389. 395. 398 

4 : 

21  ...  . 

■ • 239 

24  : 53-58  . . 

...  13 

3:1-8  . 

391 

6 : 

2,  4 ... 

. . 241 

24  ; 65  ... 

■ ■ • 43 

3:2  . . 

389 

9 : 

6 . . . . 

. . II6 

24  : 67  . . . 

■ • 33.53 

3 : 5.  14  • 

397 

lO 

8-10  . . 

. . 222 

25  : 4,  10  . . 

. . 241 

3 : 21,  22 

331 

II 

29-31  . . 

• • 32 

26  ; 23,  33  . . 

• • • 257 

4 : 17  . . 

314 

12 

I , . . . 

• • 341 

26  ; 26-33  . . 

4 : 31  ■ • 

377 

12 

5 ■ • • • 

• • 357 

28  : I,  2 . . . 

...  32 

5:1-3  • 

347 

12 

10-13  • ■ 

. . 32 

28  : 10  ... 

• • 257 

10  : 9 . . 

347 

13 

12  . . . 

• • 342 

28  : 12  ... 

■ • ■ 374 

12  : 5 . . 

377 

14 

1-7  ..  . 

• • 357 

29  : 1-30  . . 

...  4 

12  : 6 . . 

378 

14 

1-17  . . 

. . 271 

29  : 10-18  . . 

...  62 

12  : 10  . 

385 

14 

18, 19  . . 

• • 373 

29  : 15-28  . . 

...  23 

12  : II  . 

383 

i6 

12  . . . 

. . 388 

29  : 16-25  . . 

...  58 

12  : 26,  27 

380 

17 

3.  22  . . 

. . 268 

29  : 20  ... 

...  63 

12  : 27  . 

. . ..241,377 

17 

s . . . . 

■ • 239 

29  : 20,  21  . . 

...  26 

12  : 35  ■ 

320 

i8 

I . . . . 

• • 77 

29  : 27  ... 

• ■ • 34 

12  : 35,  36 

332 

i8 

1-8  ..  . 

• 4. 285 

31  : 43-49  • • 

13  : 14  • 

• • .391 

i8 

6 . . . . 

. . 78 

32  : 25  ... 

13  : 18  . 

388 

i8 

6-8  ..  . 

. , 80 

32  : 32  ... 

. . .241 

13  : 19  . 

358 

i8 

9,  10  . . 

. . 78 

33  : 18  ... 

. . .358 

14  : 9 . . 

257 

i8 

16-33  • • 

• • 133 

34  : 1-4  • • • 

...  13 

15  : 20,  21 

68 

19 

1-3  ..  . 

. . 84 

34  : 1-31  • • 

...  63 

15  : 22  . 

388 

19 

1-25  ■ • 

• • 133 

34  : 12  ... 

...  23 

15  : 26  . 

297 

19 

8 . . . . 

• • 99 

35  : 16-20  . . 

16  : I . . 

388 

20 

2-12  . . 

• • 32 

35  : 19-20  . . 

...  191 

16  : 13  . 

286 

21 

14-21 

■ 12,388 

45  : 8 . . . . 

16  : 31  . 

283 

21 

14.  31-33 

• • 257 

46  : I,  5 . . . 

257 

17  : 1-6  . 

• ■ • 293.  405 

22 

9,  10  . . 

• • 374 

47  : 9 . . . . 

• • • 341 

18  : 5 • ■ 

395 

22 

14  . . . 

■ ■ 395 

48  : 1-7  . . . 

19  : I . . 

388 

22 

19  ■ ■ . 

49  : 32  ... 

.241 

19  : 20  . 

389 

24 

1-4  ..  . 

50  : i-ii  . . 

20  : 2 . . 

391 

24 

1-6,  22,47  (R.V.) 

50  : 7-13  • • 

• ■ • 5 

20  : 10  . 

48 

50-53  • • 

50  : 24-26  . . 

. . .358 

20  : 12 

252 

433 


434 


Scriptural  Index. 


TEXT 

PAGE 

22  : i6,  17  . . . 

• 23 

29  : II,  12  . . . 

■ 285 

29  ; 18-21  . . . 

. 266 

32  : 7.  8 . . . . 

• 231 

32  : 20  .... 

• 320 

33  : 15  .... 

• 403 

LEVITICUS. 

3 : 1-17  .... 

4 ; 7,  18,  25.  30.  34 

. 285 

7 : 15 

. 109 

8 ; 12,  22-30  . . 

. 266 

8 : 15 

■ 285 

9:3 

■ 377 

9:9 

.285 

14  : 10  .... 

• 377 

17  ; 3-5. 13. 14  • 

. 48 

17  : 13  .... 

. 285 

19  : 20  .... 

. 26 

19  : 28  .... 

. 160 

19  : 32  .... 

■ 244 

21  : 5 . . . 

. 160 

23  ; 12  .... 

• 377 

23  ; 14  .... 

. 282 

23  : 42.  43  ■ • • 

■ 344 

24  : 9 

. 285 

24  : 22  .... 

. 48 

33  : 36  .... 

• 347 

NUMBERS. 

2:2 

. 241 

10  : 10  .... 

■ 379 

10  : 10-32  . . . 

II  : 4,  31-33  . . 

. 287 

II  : 8 

. 283 

II  : 18  .... 

11:31,31-34  . 

. 286 

12  : I 

. 68 

13  : 21  .... 

. 388 

14  ••  33.  34  • • • 

. 292 

16  : 22  .... 

268 

18  : 8,  19  . . . 

20  : I 

20  : i-ii  . . . 

• 293 

20  : 5 

20  : II  .... 

• 4°S 

20  ; 14-20  . . . 

• 22^ 

21  : 6 

. 308 

21  : 21-23  • • • 

. 223 

26  : 20  .... 

. 241 

26  : 38,  41  . . . 

28  : II  .... 

• 379 

29  : 2 

■ 377 

33  : 8 

. 388 

TEXT 

PAGE 

TEXT 

PAGE 

35  ; 6,  11-1-5, 

25-28, 

24  : 1-28  . . . 

• • 358 

32  . . . 

...  127 

24 : 17  . . . . 

• • 591 

24  : 32  .... 

355.  338 

DEUTERONOMY. 

I : 7,  8,  21  . . 

• . -391 

JUDGES. 

2:7  . . . . 

■ . .293 

I : 12,  13  . . . 

• 12,  23 

3 : 24-28  . . 

• • .391 

2 : 22 

• • 231 

4 : 43  . . . . 

4 : 1-24  . . . . 

. . 128 

5:6  . . . . 

• . .391 

4 : 4-10  . . . . 

. . 68 

6 : 3-12  . . . 

...  391 

4:  19 

. . 78 

8 : i-io,  14-16 

...  391 

5:1 

. . 68 

8:2  . , . . 

...  389 

5 : 1-31  . ■ . . 

. . 128 

8 : 3,  4 . . . 

...  294 

5 : 25 

. . 78 

8 : 7.  8,15  . . 

. . . 278 

6 : 3.  4.33  • • • 

. . 76 

8 : 15  ...  . 

. . .388 

6 : 3.  33  • • ■ • 

10  : 17,  18  . . 

...  48 

6:8 

• -391 

11  : lo-is  . . 

• • .391 

7 : I,  12-23  • • 

. . 76 

II  : 29  . . . 

■ • -373 

7 : 12 

13  : S . • • . 

• 231.391 

8 : 10 

13  : 13  ■ ■ . 

8 : 24 

• • 324 

14  : i . . . . 

8 : 24-26  . . . 

• -325 

16  : 5,  6 . . . 

9:6 

■ -358 

16  : 16  . . . 

. . .340 

9 : 7-21  . . . . 

271.  359 

17  : 29  . . . 

...  373 

II  : 39.  40  ■ ■ • 

19  : 1-3  . ■ . 

...  223 

14  ; 1-3  • • • • 

■ 13.63 

19  : 2,  3 . . . 

14  : 10-12  . . . 

■ ■ 34 

20  : 7 . . . . 

...  27 

14  : 20  . . . . 

• 17.  23 

22  : 23,  24  . . 

...  26 

16  : 3 

22  : 28,  29  . . 

...  23 

17  : 10  , . . . 

24  ; I . . . . 

• ■ • 37 

18  : 19  . . . . 

26  ; 14  . . . 

. . . 167 

19  : 1-30  . . . 

• • 134 

27  : 7 . . . . 

19  : 15-21  . . . 

. . 85 

28  : 30  . . . 

...  27 

19 : 22  . . . . 

28  : 59,  60  . . 

. . . 298 

19  : 22-24  • • • 

• ■ 99 

29  : 29  . . . 

20  : 1-48  . . . 

• • 134 

31  : 29  . . . 

• • .231 

20  : 13  . . . . 

32  : 10  . . . 

...  388 

32  : 35  . ■ • 

RUTH 

2:9 

• • 360 

JOSHUA. 

2 : 14 

3:3-6  . . . 

■ • • 347 

4 : 11 

. . 191 

3:5  . . . . 

4:1-9  . . . 

• • • 374 

1 SAMUEL. 

5 : 14  • . . • 

I : 16 

6 : 15,  16,  20  . 

• ■ • 347 

2 : 12 

7:6  . . . . 

8 ; II 

. . 214 

9 : 3-27  . . . 

10  : 2 

. . 191 

15  : 16,  17  . 

. . 12,  23 

10  : 27  . . . . 

17  : 13  . . . 

16  : 5 

. . 266 

20  : 1-9  . . . 

17  : 1-25  • ■ • 

20  : 2,  7 . . . 

■ • - 358 

17  : 17  . . . . 

21  : 13,  21,  27,  32,  36, 

17  : 25  . . . . 

• • 23 

38  . . . 

18  : 17-21  . . . 

• • 13 

Scriptural  Index. 


435 


TEXT  PAGE  TEXT  PAGE 


18 

: 17-27  .... 

23 

9 : 

10 

. . 174 

23 

: 6 

242 

II 

. . 251 

25 

: 1-42  .... 

63 

II 

: 1-16  . . . 

. . 68 

25 

: 18 

282 

12 

251. 257 

25 

: 40,  41  . . . . 

19 

14 

. . 251 

15 

: 2,  33  . . . 

. . 251 

2 S.A.MUEL. 

16 

: 21  . . . . 

■ • 391 

I : 

II,  12  .... 

I6I 

: 24-28  . . . 

• • 372 

3 : 

6,  20-29  • • • 

130 

18 

■ ■ 251 

6 : 

12-16  .... 

52 

21 

: I,  19  . . . 

• . 251 

13 

: 10-13  .... 

32 

21 

: 22  .... 

• • 231 

15 

: I 

21S 

22 

. . 251 

17 

: 28 

282 

22 

: 12-20  . . . 

18 

: 6-9 

225 

23 

: 31.  36  . . . 

■ ■ 251 

18 

: 33 

151 

24 

: 8,  12,  15,  18 

• ■ 251 

19 

= 9 

194 

I CHRONICLES. 

I KINGS. 

2 ; 

51 

2 : 

1-6 

130 

4 : 

14 

. . 241 

2 : 
2 : 
2 : 

13-17  .... 

19, 20  .... 
28-34  .... 

63 

251 

129 

4 : 
6 ; 
6 : 

28 

3 

57. 67  . . . 

■ ■ 257 

■ ■ 314 

3 : 

I 

25 

® ■ 

40 

4 : 
8 : 
8 : 
9 : 

3° 

22. 54  .... 

29-49  .... 

16 

242 

268 

269 

25 

9: 

15 

16 
21 

7 

: 25-29  . . . 

: II  . . . . 

: 16,  17  . . . 

• ■ 52 

. . 266 
. . 268 

9 : 

18 

31 

2 CHRONICLES. 

10 

: 1-13  .... 

68 

6 ; 

13 

II 

II 

: 3,  19  ...  . 

: 26 

25 

251 

8 : 
9 : 

4 

I-I2  . . . . 

• • 31 
. . 68 

12 

359 

10 

- . 3S9 

13 

; 30 

151 

TS 

. . II2 

14 

15 

16 

: 21,  31  . . . . 
: 2,  10  .... 

: 29-33  • • • • 

251 

251 

68 

19 

20 
20 

: 4 

: 7 

: 18  . . . . 

■ ■ 257 
- • 358 

16 

18 

: 31 

: 3-16  .... 

25 

no 

21 

: 6 

■ ■ 25 

18 

261 

24 

251. 257 

18 

: 45. 46  . . • • . 

214 

30 

34 

: 13,21  . . . 
; 20-28  . . . 

• ■ 385 
. . 68 

19 

: 1-3 

68 

35 

• -384 

19 

: 1-14  .... 

390 

35 

: 17  .... 

• -385 

19 

: 1-18  

391 

25 

: 22-25  . . . 

19 

: 3 

257 

19 

: 8 

288 

EZR.\ 

21 

; 4-16,  25  ...  . 

68 

3 : 

9 

. . 241 

21 

: 10,  13 

242 

6 : 

22 

• -385 

22 

: 42 

251 

9 : 

5 

27 

: 8-12 

372 

10 

JOB. 


TEXT 

PAGE 

1:6 

. 241 

2:1 

■ 241 

2 : 11-13  .... 

■ 179 

2 : 12 

• 194 

29  : 16  

. 240 

38  : 7 

• 395 

42  : 6 

• 194 

PS.A.LMS. 

6 : 6,  7 

. 161 

8:3-9 

• 404 

8 : 4.  5 

■ 368 

16  : 10 

. 178 

19  : I 

• 403 

19  : 4.  5 

27  : 1 1 

■ 232 

29  : 8 

. 388 

35  ; 10 

51  ; 18 

• 273 

56  ; 8 

79  : 1,4. 9 • ■ • • 

■ 273 

84  : 10 

• 341 

86  : II 

■ 232 

90  : 1 . 2 

397 

94  : 1 

95  : 6 

. 268 

105  : 8 

389 

106  : 15  

114  : 8 

• 405 

119  : 54  

• 341 

119  ; 136  ...  . 

120  to  134  .... 

• 342 

I2I 

• 343 

130  : I 

. 265 

PROVERBS. 

3 : 31 

232 

4 : 14.  19  • • ■ ■ 

232 

13  : 15 

232 

14  : 12 

231 

15  : 19 

• 232 

16  : 25  

. 231 

18  : 10 

• 135 

19  : 14 

. II 

25  : 21  

■ 142 

30  : 17 

173 

31  : 11-29  ■ . • • 

■ 70 

2 KINGS.  NEHEMIAH. 

S : 27 301  II  : 7 

8 : 18 25  II  : 27  .... 


ECCLESI.A.STES. 


9 : 10 266 

12  ; 5 148 


. . 242 
• • 257 


436 


Sa'iptural  Index. 


SONG  OF  SONGS.  ' text 


PACE  TEXT 


TEXT 

PAGE  44  : 9 

. Z41 

9 : 23  . . 

1:5 

. 76  45  : 21 

U) 

00 

9 : 27-30 

3 : 6-1°  

. 61 

9 : 29  . . 

5:2 

. 274 

DANIEL. 

9 : 35  . . 

8:2 

. 33  6 : 10 

10  : I . . 

10  : 40  . 

ISAIAH. 

1 

HOSE.A.. 

10  : 42  . 

6:7 

. 241 

II  : 15  . 

3°9 

266 


14  : 18-20 174 

19  : 1-18 391 

30  : 21 232 

32  ; 2 290 

33  : 24 318 

35  ; 6,  8,  9 234 


3 : 4 


2  ; 32 


JOEL. 


241 


135 


40  : 1-5 


234 


40  : 3 . • . 216, 218,  225 

216 

358 


40  : 3.  4 

41  : 


41  : 18 405 

....  234 
...  .318 


49  : II  . 
S3  : 4 . . 
56  : 7 . . 
62  : 3 . . 


AMOS. 

5 : 16 153.  15s 

3  : 16,  17 161 

9:7 241 

9  : 13 367 


...  313 

. 139,  207 
. . . 106 
. . . 228 


JEREMIAH. 


275 

42 


266 


MICAH. 


ZECHARIAH. 


1:9  .... 

5 : 17,  18  . . . 153,  155  14 . 4 


6 : 4.  5 

7 : 16 
9 : I 
9 : 34 


231 
248 
161 
45.  S3 


MALACHI. 


13  : 18 42 

16  : 9 4S.  S3 

21  : 8 232 

22  : 18 151 

25  : 10 4S.  S3 

31  : 15-17 192 

33  : 10.  II S3 

LAMENTATIONS. 

1 : 16 161 

2 ; 10 194 

3 : iS 194 

3 : 48,  49 161 

EZEKIEL. 


2 : 15 

3 : I 


8 : 

14  ...  . 

7 : 

: 9 . . 

12 

7 : 

: 13.  14 

16 

: 10-13  . . 

. . . 42 

8 : 

: 6,  7 . 

23 

: 42  ... 

. . . 42 

8 

: 15  . . 

27 

: 30  ... 

. . . 194 

8 

: 16,  17 

29 

: 6-12  . . 

. . .391 

9 

: 15  . . 

14:36 311 

266 
285 


IS  : I . 

15  : 27 


17  : 14 
19  : 3-II 


268 
37.  72 


196 

274 


248 

234 


19  : 4-8  ....  206, 248 

29  : 6 10 

20  : 29-34 302 

22  : 2 47 

22  ; 13 58 

23  : 9 243 

23  : II 93 

23  : 27,  29 57 

24  : 40 14s 

23  : 6 54 

25  : 10 58 

25  : 31 142 

25  : 31-40  ...  48.  139 

26  : 41,  45,  46  . . . 275 


27  : 9 

18  : I 


241 

190 


MATTHEW. 

1 : 18-25 27 

2 : 16-18 192 

3:1-3 234 

4:1 390 

4  : 23 296 

4 : 24 311.  312 

5 : 31,  32  . . . . 37,  72 

5 : 42 330 

6:5 255 

6:7...  258,  261,  263 

6 : 9-13 264 

6 : 12,  14,  15  ...  . 175 

7 : I.  2 175 

. . . 284 
...  232 
. . . 312 

. 266 


MARK. 

I : 2,  3 . . 216,  218,  225 

I : 33 213 

1 : 40 312 

2 : 19 242 

2 ; 19,  20 48 

4 : 9.  23 228 

5 : 38 161 

6 : 10 105 

6 : 56 313.  314 

7 : 3.  33 266 

7 : 16 228 

7 : 28 285 

7 : 37 313 

8 : 23-25  309 

9 ; 41 106 

10  : I 274 

10  : 3-12 72 

10  : 9 10 

10  : 46-52 302 

11  : 17 27s 

12  : 14 23s 


Scriptural  Index, 


437 


TEXT 


PAGE  TEXT 


PAGE  TEXT 


PAGE 


14  : 14 95 

14  : 41 27s 


LUKE. 


: 26,  27 
: 4.  5 • 
: 41  . . 
: 16  . . 

34  • • 
: 34.  35 

35  • ■ 


8 ; 8 
9 : 38 
9 : 56 
4 


27 

27 

338 

274 

242 

48 

242 

228 

312 

316 

81 


II  : I 264,  267 


II 

; 2-4  . . . 

II 

: 4 . . . . 

• ■ • 175 

14 

: 7-11  . . 

. . . 56 

14 

: 13  • • • 

. . . 48 

14 

:35  • ■ • 

15 

: 8 . . . . 

. . . 321 

15 

:2s  ... 

. . . 47 

16 

: 8 . . . . 

16 

: 19  ... 

16 

: 20  ... 

16 

: 21  ... 

. . . 285 

17 

: 11-13  . . 

. . . 301 

18 

: 35-43  • • 

. . . 302 

19 

: 41  ... 

. . . 274 

20 

: 21  ... 

• • -235 

22 

: II  ... 

• • • 95 

22 

: 39  • • • 

. . . 274 

22 

: 41  ... 

22 

: 46  ... 

. . . 275 

22 

: 51  ■ . ■ 

24 

: 13-15  . . 

• • • 338 

24 

: 18  ... 

JOHN. 

I : 

1-7  ... 

. . . 309 

I : 

12  ...  . 

. . . 241 

I : 

23  . . . 216 

, 218,  225 

3 : 

27-30  . . 

3 : 

29  . . 

. . . 17 

4 : 

5 . . . . 

4 : 

5-9  • • • 

. . . 107 

4 : 

5-14  • • • 

4 : 

s-26, 29  . 

• • • 373 

4 : 

7. 9.  28 . . 

• . .361 

4 : 10  . . 
4 : 21,  23 
4 : 23  . . 


213 
276 
369  1 


4 : 24 

• • 367 

4 : 35 

• • 365 

4 : 37.  38  • • • 

. • 366 

5:2-9  . . . . 

• ■ 300 

5:3 

• • 3°4 

7 : 37 

• • 347 

8 : 12 

• • 348 

8 : 39 

. . 241 

II  : 39  • • • • 

. . 178 

12:3 

13  : 3-15  • • ■ 

• • 93 

13  : 20  . . . . 

• ■ 139 

14  : 6 

234.  369 

16  ; 12  . . . . 

ACTS. 

2:1 

• • 344 

2 : 21 

• ■ 135 

2 : 22-32  . . . 

. . 178 

5 : 15 

• • 314 

5 : 21 

. . 241 

7:2 

7 : 22 

• ■ 389 

7 : 60 

8 : 27 

. . 68 

9 : 40 

13  : 26  . . . . 

. . 241 

16  : 14  . . . . 

19  : 9-23  . . . 

• • 235 

20  : 36  . . . . 

21  : 5 

22  : I 

22  : 4 

• • 23s 

ROMANS. 

3 : 23 

. . 368 

8 : 14,  19  . . . 

. . 241 

10  : 13  . . . . 

• • 135 

12  : 13  . . . . 

12  : IS  . . . . 

• • 155 

12  : 20  . . . . 

. . 142 

I CORINTHIANS. 

3:7 

• ■ 367 

4 : 15.  16  . . . 

• • 243 

5:7 

344.  372 

8 : 4.  5 • • • • 

• • 231 

2 CORINTHIANS. 

II  : 26 390 

GALATIANS. 

I : 1-17 

1 : 17 


3:7 239. 241 

4 : 22-26 391 

EPHESIANS. 

2  : 2,  3 242 

5:6 242 

6:1 252 

6 ; 12 368 

PHILIPPIANS. 

2 : IS 241 

COLOSSIANS. 

2 : 17 386 

3:6 242 

I THESSALONIANS. 
5:5 242 

1 TIMOTHY. 

3:2 95 

2 TIMOTHY. 

1 ; 10  205 

HEBREWS. 

3 : 8-11,  16-18  . . . 391 

4 : l-io 391 

9 : 27 207 

10  : I 386 

10  : 19-22 235 

10  : 30 126 

11  : 8-10 406 

II  : 10 342 

II  : 13 346 

II  : 25 389 

13  : 2 141 

13  : 14 406 

JAMES. 

2 : 23 358 

5 ; 14 305 

I PETER. 

2:11 346 

2 ; 21 337 

4:9 140 

I JOHN. 

3 : I.  2 241 

REVELATION. 
11:8 391 

18  : 19 194 

19  : 6-9 56 

21  : 12 240 


39° 

391 


iJkK 


DATE  DUE 


CAVLOKO 


AKINTEO  IN  U % A. 


i.' 


'fell 


